Non-toxic Phospholipase A2 Research Articles

A novel bactericidal homodimeric PLA2 group-I from Walterinnesia aegyptia venom

A novel non-toxic phospholipase A2 was purified to homogeneity in a single chromatography step from the venom of Walterinnesia aegyptia, a monotypic elapid snake caught in Saudi Arabia, and its antimicrobial and hemolytic properties were evaluated as well. This enzyme, namely WaPLA2, is a homodimer with an estimated molecular mass of 30 kDa, and its NH2-terminal sequence exhibits a significant degree of similarity with PLA2 group-I. At optimal pH (8.5) and temperature (45 °C), the purified PLA2 exhibited a specific activity of 2100 U/mg, and it requires bile salts and Ca2+ for its activity. However, other cations such as Cd2+ and Hg2+ diminished the enzyme activity remarkably, thereby suggesting that the catalytic site arrangement has an exclusive structure for Ca2+ binding. Furthermore, WaPLA2 maintained almost 100% and 60% of its full activity in a pH range of 6.0–10 after 24 h incubation or after 60 min treatment at 70 °C, respectively. In the biological activity assays, WaPLA2 displayed potent indirectly hemolytic and antimicrobial activities that were strongly correlated. These promising findings encourage further in-depth research to understand the molecular mechanism of WaPLA2's antimicrobial properties for its possible use as a potential therapeutic lead molecule for treating infections.

Pancreatic and snake venom presynaptically active phospholipases A2 inhibit nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.

Phospholipases A2 (PLA2s) are enzymes found throughout the animal kingdom. They hydrolyze phospholipids in the sn-2 position producing lysophospholipids and unsaturated fatty acids, agents that can damage membranes. PLA2s from snake venoms have numerous toxic effects, not all of which can be explained by phospholipid hydrolysis, and each enzyme has a specific effect. We have earlier demonstrated the capability of several snake venom PLA2s with different enzymatic, cytotoxic, anticoagulant and antiproliferative properties, to decrease acetylcholine-induced currents in Lymnaea stagnalis neurons, and to compete with α-bungarotoxin for binding to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) and acetylcholine binding protein. Since nAChRs are implicated in postsynaptic and presynaptic activities, in this work we probe those PLA2s known to have strong presynaptic effects, namely β-bungarotoxin from Bungarus multicinctus and crotoxin from Crotalus durissus terrificus. We also wished to explore whether mammalian PLA2s interact with nAChRs, and have examined non-toxic PLA2 from porcine pancreas. It was found that porcine pancreatic PLA2 and presynaptic β-bungarotoxin blocked currents mediated by nAChRs in Lymnaea neurons with IC50s of 2.5 and 4.8 μM, respectively. Crotoxin competed with radioactive α-bungarotoxin for binding to Torpedo and human α7 nAChRs and to the acetylcholine binding protein. Pancreatic PLA2 interacted similarly with these targets; moreover, it inhibited radioactive α-bungarotoxin binding to the water-soluble extracellular domain of human α9 nAChR, and blocked acetylcholine induced currents in human α9α10 nAChRs heterologously expressed in Xenopus oocytes. These and our earlier results show that all snake PLA2s, including presynaptically active crotoxin and β-bungarotoxin, as well as mammalian pancreatic PLA2, interact with nAChRs. The data obtained suggest that this interaction may be a general property of all PLA2s, which should be proved by further experiments.

Synergism between Basic Asp49 and Lys49 Phospholipase A2 Myotoxins of Viperid Snake Venom In Vitro and In Vivo

Two subtypes of phospholipases A2 (PLA2s) with the ability to induce myonecrosis, ‘Asp49’ and ‘Lys49’ myotoxins, often coexist in viperid snake venoms. Since the latter lack catalytic activity, two different mechanisms are involved in their myotoxicity. A synergism between Asp49 and Lys49 myotoxins from Bothrops asper was previously observed in vitro, enhancing Ca2+ entry and cell death when acting together upon C2C12 myotubes. These observations are extended for the first time in vivo, by demonstrating a clear enhancement of myonecrosis by the combined action of these two toxins in mice. In addition, novel aspects of their synergism were revealed using myotubes. Proportions of Asp49 myotoxin as low as 0.1% of the Lys49 myotoxin are sufficient to enhance cytotoxicity of the latter, but not the opposite. Sublytic amounts of Asp49 myotoxin also enhanced cytotoxicity of a synthetic peptide encompassing the toxic region of Lys49 myotoxin. Asp49 myotoxin rendered myotubes more susceptible to osmotic lysis, whereas Lys49 myotoxin did not. In contrast to myotoxic Asp49 PLA2, an acidic non-toxic PLA2 from the same venom did not markedly synergize with Lys49 myotoxin, revealing a functional difference between basic and acidic PLA2 enzymes. It is suggested that Asp49 myotoxins synergize with Lys49 myotoxins by virtue of their PLA2 activity. In addition to the membrane-destabilizing effect of this activity, Asp49 myotoxins may generate anionic patches of hydrolytic reaction products, facilitating electrostatic interactions with Lys49 myotoxins. These data provide new evidence for the evolutionary adaptive value of the two subtypes of PLA2 myotoxins acting synergistically in viperid venoms.

Neutralisation of the pharmacological activities of Bothrops alternatus venom by anti-PLA2 IgGs

Basic phospholipases A2 (PLA2) are toxic and induce a wide spectrum of pharmacological effects, although the acidic enzyme types are not lethal or cause low lethality. Therefore, it is challenging to elucidate the mechanism of action of acidic phospholipases. This study used the acidic non-toxic Ba SpII RP4 PLA2 from Bothrops alternatus as an antigen to develop anti-PLA2 IgG antibodies in rabbits and used in vivo assays to examine the changes in crude venom when pre-incubated with these antibodies. Using Ouchterlony and western blot analyses on B. alternatus venom, we examined the specificity and sensitivity of phospholipase A2 recognition by the specific antibodies (anti-PLA2 IgG). Neutralisation assays using a non-toxic PLA2 antigen revealed unexpected results. The (indirect) haemolytic activity of whole venom was completely inhibited, and all catalytically active phospholipases A2 were blocked. Myotoxicity and lethality were reduced when the crude venom was pre-incubated with anti-PLA2 immunoglobulins. CK levels in the skeletal muscle were significantly reduced at 6 h, and the muscular damage was more significant at this time-point compared to 3 and 12 h. When four times the LD50 was used (224 μg), half the animals treated with the venom-anti PLA2 IgG mixture survived after 48 h. All assays performed with the specific antibodies revealed that Ba SpII RP4 PLA2 had a synergistic effect on whole-venom toxicity. IgG antibodies against the venom of the Argentinean species B. alternatus represent a valuable tool for elucidation of the roles of acidic PLA2 that appear to have purely digestive roles and for further studies on immunotherapy and snake envenoming in affected areas in Argentina and Brazil.

Interaction of the neurotoxic and nontoxic secretory phospholipases A2 with the crotoxin inhibitor from Crotalus serum.

Crotalus durissus terrificus snakes possess a protein in their blood, named crotoxin inhibitor from Crotalus serum (CICS), which protects them against crotoxin, the main toxin of their venom. CICS neutralizes the lethal potency of crotoxin and inhibits its phospholipase A2 (PLA2) activity. The aim of the present study is to investigate the specificity of CICS towards snake venom neurotoxic PLA2s (beta-neurotoxins) and nontoxic mammalian PLA2s. This investigation shows that CICS does not affect the enzymatic activity of pancreatic and nonpancreatic PLA2s, bee venom PLA2 and Elapidae beta-neurotoxins but strongly inhibits the PLA2 activity of Viperidae beta-neurotoxins. Surface plasmon resonance and PAGE studies further demonstrated that CICS makes complexes with monomeric and multimeric Viperidae beta-neurotoxins but does not interact with nontoxic PLA2s. In the case of dimeric beta-neurotoxins from Viperidae venoms (crotoxin, Mojave toxin and CbICbII), which are made by the noncovalent association of a PLA2 with a nonenzymatic subunit, CICS does not react with the noncatalytic subunit, instead it binds tightly to the PLA2 subunit and induces the dissociation of the heterocomplex. In vitro assays performed with Torpedo synaptosomes showed a protective action of CICS against Viperidae beta-neurotoxins but not against other PLA2 neurotoxins, on primary and evoked liberation of acetylcholine. In conclusion, CICS is a specific PLA2 inhibitor of the beta-neurotoxins from the Viperidae family.

Ammodytin L, an Inactive Phospholipase A2Homologue with Myotoxicity in Mice, Binds to the Presynaptic Acceptor of the β-Neurotoxic Ammodytoxin C inTorpedo:An Indication for a Phospholipase A2Activity-Independent Mechanism of Action of β-Neurotoxins in Fish?

A Ser48 phospholipase A2-homologue, ammodytin L, which is myotoxic in mammals and devoid of any phospholipase A2activity, completely inhibits the specific binding of the neurotoxic phospholipase A2, ammodytoxin C, to fish presynaptic membranes fromTorpedo marmorataelectric organ. In cross-linking experiments,125I-ammodytin L labels the same membrane proteins as125I-ammodytoxin C (70, 38.5-57.4 and 19.7 kDa). The formation of these adducts is completely prevented by the presence of ammodytoxin C but not of a non-toxic phospholipase A2, ammodytin I2. A chimeric phospholipase A2, constructed by associating the N-terminal half of ammodytoxin to the C-terminal half of ammodytin L, possesses a low, but significant phospholipase A2activity, however it is not toxic to mice, probably due to abolition of the specific neuronal acceptor binding in mammals. Nevertheless, the chimeric phospholipase A2is able to interact with the ammodytoxin acceptor inTorpedo marmorataelectric organ. The existence of neuronal acceptors for ammodytin L and for the chimeric phospholipase A2suggests that they may act as neurotoxins in fish. As ammodytin L does not posses any enzymatic activity it, therefore, appears to be an excellent tool to investigate the mechanism of action of β-neurotoxins independently of their phospholipase A2activity.

Inhibition of ACh release at an Aplysia synapse by neurotoxic phospholipases A2: specific receptors and mechanisms of action.

1. Monochain (OS2) and multichain (taipoxin) neurotoxic phospholipases A2 (PLA2), purified from taipan snake venom, both inhibited ACh release at a concentration of 20 nM (90% inhibition in 2 h) at an identified synapse from buccal ganglion of Aplysia californica. 2. The Na+ current was unchanged upon application of either OS2 or taipoxin. Conversely, presynaptic K+ currents (IA and IK) were increased by taipoxin but not by OS2. In addition, OS2 induced a significant decrease of the presynaptic Ca2+ current (30%) while taipoxin increased this latter current by 20-30%. 3. Bee venom PLA2, another monochain neurotoxic PLA2, also inhibited ACh release while non-toxic enzymatically active PLA2s like OS1 (also purified from taipan snake venom) or porcine pancreatic PLA2 elicited a much weaker inhibition of ACh release, suggesting a specific action of neurotoxic PLA2s versus non-toxic PLA2s on ACh release. 4. Using iodinated OS2, specific high affinity binding sites with molecular masses of 140 and 18 kDa have been identified on Aplysia ganglia. The maximal binding capacities were 55 and 300-400 fmol (mg protein)-1 for membrane preparations from whole and buccal ganglia, respectively. These binding sites are of high affinity for neurotoxic PLA2s (Kd values, 100-800 pM) and of very low affinity for non-toxic PLA2s (Kd values in the micromolar range), thus indicating that these binding sites are presumably involved in the blockade of ACh release by neurotoxic PLA2s.

Identification of the neuronal acceptor in bovine cortex for ammodytoxin C, a presynaptically neurotoxic phospholipase A2.

A specific, high-affinity binding site for ammodytoxin C in synaptic membranes from bovine cerebral cortex was detected and partially characterized. Equilibrium binding analysis revealed a single population of [125I]ammodytoxin C acceptors with the following binding parameters: Kd = 6.0 nM and Bmax = 5.7 pmol/mg membrane protein. Such binding was strongly inhibited by three ammodytoxins (A, B, and C) and by crotoxin B. Vipera berus berus phospholipase A2 was a weaker inhibitor; nontoxic phospholipase A2, ammodytin I2, and the myotoxic phospholipase A2 homologue, ammodytin L, both from Vipera ammodytes ammodytes venom, inhibited binding only at very high concentrations, whereas alpha-dendrotoxin, beta-bungarotoxin, and crotoxin A had no influence on the [125I]ammodytoxin C-specific binding. The ammodytoxin C neuronal binding site therefore overlaps, at least partially, with the neuronal acceptors for some of the related presynaptically neurotoxic phospholipases A2 (beta-neurotoxins). [125I]-Ammodytoxin C was covalently attached to its acceptor by chemical cross-linking. Subsequent SDS-PAGE analysis followed by autoradiography revealed saturably labeled membrane components with apparent M(r) values of 51,000 (weaker band) and 53,000-56,000 (stronger band). Pretreatment of synaptic membranes with Staphylococcus aureus V-8 proteinase and proteinase K, heat, or low pH decreased the [125I]ammodytoxin C-specific binding to various extents, but never abolished it completely. Membrane protein and certain phospholipids residing in its vicinity are therefore most likely involved in the binding of ammodytoxin C to bovine synaptic membranes.

Mechanism of inhibition of calcium uptake into sarcoplasmic reticulum by notexin, a neurotoxic and myotoxic polypeptide.

Notexin belongs to a class of snake venom neurotoxins and myotoxins that have phospholipase A2 activity. Previous studies have shown that these toxins affect target cells differently from phospholipases that are not neurotoxic or myotoxic. Notexin inhibited the Ca2+ uptake into fragmented sarcoplasmic reticulum from rabbit skeletal muscle, but it did not cause an efflux of previously accumulated Ca2+ or inhibit the Ca2+--ATPase activity. It is suggested that notexin specifically binds to and decreases the conductance for Ca2+ of the Ca2+ pump and/or the conductance of a channel for an ion that facilitates Ca2+ transport. The K+ ionophore valinomycin reversed the notexin-induced inhibition of Ca2+ uptake into sarcoplasmic reticulum, suggesting that the molecular target of notexin could be a K+ channel. Two types of reconstitution experiments make it unlikely that notexin acts by degrading a minor lipid that is resistant to hydrolysis by nontoxic phospholipases A2. Notexin-inactivated sarcoplasmic reticulum vesicles were reactivated (with respect to Ca2+ uptake) by simple solubilization with detergent and subsequent reconstitution by detergent removal. Second, notexin was still active on sarcoplasmic reticulum vesicles after greater than 94% of the lipids were replaced by soybean phosphoglycerides during the reconstitution procedure.

Inhibition by neurotoxic phospholipases A2 of synaptosomal uptake of gamma-aminobutyric acid.

A comparison has been made of the abilities of several neurotoxic and nontoxic phospholipases A2 from snake venoms to inhibit the intake of gamma-aminobutyric acid into synaptosomes from rat cerebral cortex. The neurotoxic phospholipase A2 inhibited GABA uptake more than the nontoxic enzymes did. However, there was a poor correlation between the measured specific enzyme activity of a phospholipase A2 and its ability to inhibit the uptake of GABA.

Purification of a nontoxic phospholipase A2 from the venom of Indian krait (Bungarus caeruleus).

A nontoxic phospholipase A2 was purified from the venom of Indian krait (Bungarus caeruleus) by a four-step procedure involving electrophoresis, gel filtration and ion-exchange chromatography. The recovery of the enzyme activity was 37% and the purified preparation was 38 times as active as the crude venom. The purified enzyme had a molecular weight of 12,500 and the optimum pH of 7.2. The enzyme showed higher specificity toward phosphatidylethanolamine than phosphatidylcholine. The preparation was not very labile to heat and its activity was dependent on the presence of divalent cations, calcium ions being the most effective activators. The enzyme was completely inhibited by iodoacetic acid but showed high stability against 8 M urea. Purified phospholipase A2 was nontoxic at an iv dose of 5 microgram/g mouse. The high specific activity, the high yield and the nontoxic nature of the enzyme indicate that the major form of phospholipase A2 in Bungarus caeruleus venom is not associated with any toxicity and has properties somewhat similar to that of phospholipase A2 from some other venoms.