Value Of Non-timber Forest Products Research Articles

Valor econômico e determinantes socioculturais dos produtos florestais não madeireiros na Reserva Transnacional W da Biosfera, Benim

This paper examined the economic value of non-timber forest products and their contribution to cash income of people living around the W Transbundary Bioreserve of W in Benin. 148 people among two ethnic groups were interviewed. Data were analysed using the indirect method of opportunity cost and raw margin estimation. Results showed that local people use to harvest mostly five products: one non-marketable product (firewood) and four marketable products (almonds of Vitellaria paradoxa, C.F.Gaertn, seeds and pulp of Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) R. Br. ex G. Don and leaves of Adansonia digitata L.). The mean contribution of marketable products to surveyed dwellers was estimated at XOF 255,484 ($US 510.968) (standard error: XOF 37,109), representing about 11.46% of the annual cash income per household. Age and sociolinguistic group were the main determinants of non-timber forest products harvesting. Given their value to the communities, those plants should be prioritized for domestication and conservation.

Assessment of Utilisation and Monetary Value of Non-Timber Forest Products in Kilombero District, Tanzania

Assessment of Utilisation and Monetary Value of Non-Timber Forest Products in Kilombero District, Tanzania

The Role of Non-Timber Forest Products in Creating Incentives for Forest Conservation: A Case Study of Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary, Cambodia

The fundamental issue in this study is to confirm whether or not the extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) will encourage additional pro-conservation behavior from local people. This study clarifies three research questions as follows: what is the current activity of forest conservation in Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary?; does the extraction of NTFPs create incentives for forest conservation?; and how much value do NTFPs have for incentives for forest conservation activities? Fieldworks were conducted in September 2015, March and April 2016, March 2017 in Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary: participatory rural appraisals, key informant interviews, and structured questionnaire interviews with 288 households were randomly selected. Though this study confirmed that extraction of NTFPs is generally seen as the most positive influenced factors for local people’s participation towards forest conservation. Additionally, this study found that the annual value of NTFPs as incentives for forest conservation was around US$0.95/ha or US$95/km2 in Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary, Cambodia.

The (in)visible market of miriti (Mauritia flexuosa L.f.) fruits, the “winter acai”, in Amazonian riverine communities of Abaetetuba, Northern Brazil

While the sale of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) is nearly invisible in and marginal to official economic statistics, it is an important source of income for many rural populations in Amazonia. This paper discuss a NTFPs production and marketing chain (Mauritia flexuosa fruits) in Abaetetuba County, Northern Brazil. Research was carried out using the following methods: participant observation, application of semi-structured questionnaires, and by accompanying production during harvest months in 2015. Data show that this channel is made up of many actors, including riverine people (ribeirinhos), middlemen and merchants in Abaetetuba and other regions in Amazonia. Fruits are sold through short distribution channels in Abaetetuba, contributing to up to 80% of all income produced by ribeirinhos during winter months; miriti income ranges from 918.00USD to 2006.00USD per household per harvest depending on the distribution channel used. These values are equivalent to those obtained from acai (Euterpe oleracea) sales obtained by acai producers who employ moderate management levels in Amazonia, a fact that leads ribeirinhos to consider miriti the “winter acai”. The importance of miriti fruit and product sales for households in the study area is striking, and as such, policies to strengthen NTFP value chains are in great demand.

Underground biomass accumulation of two economically important non-timber forest products is influenced by ecological settings and swiddeners’ management in the Bago Mountains, Myanmar

Diverse tree species, understory bamboos, shrubs, and herbs in mixed deciduous forests (MDFs) provide not only timber, but also non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in terms of fuel, food, and medicinal plants. Sustainability and the economic value of commercially extracted NTFPs have been studied mainly for the aboveground vegetative components of plants. However, such important knowledge of the underground parts of the plants is limited because of difficulties observing them and lesser consideration of the lower value of NTFPs, compared with timber, in forest management. Here we established allometric models to predict the root and corm biomasses of two plants, Rauvolfia serpentina and Amorphophallus bulbifer, in relation to their aboveground, vegetative parts. Estimated underground biomasses of the two species were compared among three habitat types: a swidden field, a fallow forest after cultivation, and a ridge forest that was not subjected to swidden agriculture. The length of the longest leaf of each individual plant explained the accumulation of the underground biomass of R. serpentina (R2=0.64, P<0.001) in a positive, linear relationship, and stem diameter at ground level did the same for A. bulbifer (R2=0.92, P<0.001). The largest biomass accumulation of R. serpentina was found in swidden fields because of its light demanding nature, which was supported by a significant, negative correlation between canopy cover and leaf length (Pearson’s correlation=−0.612, P<0.05). Because A. bulbifer was cut during weeding time, we could not measure its biomass accumulation in swidden fields; however, its occurrence in swidden fields was confirmed by farmers and field observations. No difference in the biomass accumulation of A. bulbifer was observed between the fallow and ridge forests. The promising growth of both species in the same year that a fire occurred during swidden cultivation suggests that the underground regeneration source provides advantages related to the harvesting of NTFPs and allows them to co-exist with slashing and burning in a swidden system, as well as surface fires in an MDF. Establishment of the two species in fallow vegetation was possibly facilitated by ecological and anthropogenic factors such as the reproductive bulbils of A. bulbifer and the broken root fragments of R. serpentina left after the harvest, as well as the dormancy period of these species during the dry season. This study revealed the cultivation potential of NTFPs that are suitable for community and agroforest plantations using a swidden system in an MDF that experiences fires.

Potential Economic and Development Prospects of Non Timber Forest Products in Community Agroforestry Land Around Sibolangit Tourism Park

The communities who live around Sibolangit Tourism Park have developed nontimber forest products (NTFP) in their own agroforestry lands. This research evaluates the potential economic and development prospects from NTFP development in the Park by examining: (1) type of NTFP and economic value from community agrofrestry land, (2) contribution of NTFPs on household income, (3) development prospects of NTFP-based agroforestry around Sibolangit Tourism Park. The research was conducted in two selected villages around Sibolangit Tourism Park: Sembahe Village and Batu Mbelin Village. The research took place over a period between June and August 2016. Research data was obtained from in-depth interviews and observations. A descriptive method was used to analyze and describe facts related to the research aims. The type of NTFPs cultivated by communities at the research sites include mangosteen, durian, garcinia, candlenut, lanzones, lansium, bitter bean, and areca nut (as their forestry component) and ginger, turmeric, chili, papaya, etlingera, and banana (as the agriculture component). Most NTFPs are cultivated as a comercial product. The economic value of NTFPs in Batu Mbelin Village has reached Rp. 547,275,000/year or contribute 80.07% of total family income. Meanwhile, the economic value of NTFPs in Sembahe Village has reached Rp 682,100,000/year, contributing to 78.75% of total household income. Therefore, the prospects for supporting and expanding NTFP in agroforestry plots in and around Sibolangit Tourism Park has high potential for supporting household income

Non-Timber Forest Products Trade and Community Livelihoods around Mabira Central Forest Reserve, Uganda

This paper generates data on the diversity and value of non- timber forest products (NTFPs) traded in markets adjacent to Mabira Central forest reserve. The objective of the study was to evaluate the contribution of NTFPs trade to the livelihoods of traders’ households. Quarterly market surveys and field observations were conducted in eleven markets in 2014. All NTFPs traders were interviewed using semi structured questionnaires. Simple profitability method was used to determine the profit margins of the traded products. The per capita value of NTFPs traded was calculated and was highest for drums ($ 3,101) and lowest for winnowing trays ($3). All products had profit margins above 60%. Income generated from NTFP trade was used to cater for other essential needs in households like payment of school fees, medical treatment, buying food and other household items. NTFP trade has potential of improving the lives of traders through establishment of NTFP enterprises. In order for such enterprises to be successful forest products traded must be harvested sustainably to ensure consistent supply of the products. Multipurpose species like Markhamia lutea, Phoenix reclinata, Raphia farinifera and Calmus sp. should be domesticated to minimize pressure on the forest. Keywords: Market, non-timber forest products, trade, profitability, income, Mabira, livelihood

Value chain dynamics of an emerging palm fiber handicraft market in Maranhão, Brazil

Non-timber forest product (NTFP) markets are often used as a development tool to improve livelihood stability of socio-economically vulnerable communities with access to natural resources. Interventions to encourage growth of NTFP markets, however, often succeed at reaching only subsets of target populations. To address impacts of changing NTFP markets on livelihoods and sustainable forest management, value chain and livelihood systems analyses were used to evaluate impacts of a buriti (Mauritia flexuosa) handicraft market on heterogeneous buriti users in Maranhão, Brazil. Data were obtained through interviews with 97 individuals who operated as different types of buriti users. Buriti value chain diagrams were constructed by identifying patterns among responses. Socioeconomic characteristics of actors were identified using statistical means comparisons. Logistic regression analysis was used to identify the socioeconomic factors that correlated with peoples' role in the value chain. Results showed that the new market has introduced new individuals who interact with pre-existing buriti users. Actors differ by livelihood strategy, socioeconomic factors, and perceptions regarding sustainability of leaf collection. Social heterogeneity in NTFP value chains should be considered by initiatives that seek to influence participation in NTFP markets, evaluate effects of commercialization on livelihoods, and effectively design and implement resource management strategies.

POLICY RELEVANT ECOSYSTEM SERVICES VALUATION; RAINFOREST NON·TIMBER PRODUCTS

One recent study has estimated the current economic value of seventeen ecosystem serviceson a biosphere-wide basis at between US$ I (i - 54 trillion (1012) per year. representing anaverage annual value some I.X times the current global gross national products (Costanza('I (/1. 1997). Such global aggregate values. while they serve to raise awareness andstimulate dialogue between scientists. social scientists. policymakcrs and citizens. shouldnot be taken too literally. The challenge will he to quantify in monetary terms and provehow valuable ecosystem services arc: as well as to formulate mechanisms by which suchfunction-based values can he realistically appropriated by society. In a much quoted paper(Peters et al.. 19X9) the economic value (net present value) of the fruits and latex harvestfrom an Amazonian forest was estimated to he US$ 6.:nO ha·l. Even more significantly. itwas also claimed that such an economic return was sawntimber extraction/production(NPV = US$ I.(JOO ha'). timber and pulpwood extraction/production (NPV = US$ 3.lX4ha·l) or fully-stocked cattle pasture (NPV = US$ 2.2960 ha-I). This is a strong conclusionwith obvious implications for tropical forest conservation verses development policy. Thetemptation then is that such findings are gcncraliscd.This paper focuses on tropical rainforest ecosystems and the use value of their non-timberforest products (NTFPs) provisions to test whethcr this conclusion is universally valid?The study has rigorously applied its data collection and analysis to validity and reliabilityprotocols in order to estimate the policy relevant NTFPs value derived from the Sinharajarainforest in Sri Lanka. This forest land use has then been compared with alternative lane!us options in a cost-benefit analysis. The results indicate that the NPV of the actual NTFPsnow from the Sinharaja is US$ 147 ha-I which is significantly lower than the landclearance value USS 42XI ha-I (tea cultivation). This means that previous studies havesignificantly overestimated NTFPs value. and consequently that biodiversity conservationpolicy cannot be economically justified (economic efficiency criterion) on the basis ofsustainable NTFPs collection alone. Such a strategy docs. however. also have other widersocial benefits for local forest village communities such as income distribution effects.Conservation of the forest ecosystem would also generate other uses and non-use valueslinked to other 'NTFPs-col11patiblc' forest function services. An economic case for such aconservation strategy will have to he based on the multiple services value that a given'healthy' forest ecosystem can provide sustainably over lime,

Fruits of our labour: contribution of commercial baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) fruit harvesting to the livelihoods of marginalized people in northern Venda, South Africa

Baobabs (Adansonia digitata) provide products, mainly bark, leaves and fruit, which are used for subsistence purposes and traded to generate cash. Recently, demands for baobab fruit derivatives on the global organic market, namely pulp and seed oil, have increased rapidly, leading to concerns that this may have negative impacts on subsistence users, particularly in areas where there is an existing high dependence on these products, such as West Africa. In contrast, in southern Africa baobab fruit are probably ‘underutilized’ and commercialization would help reduce poverty. This study evaluated the direct-use (subsistence) and income (cash) value of baobab fruit on the livelihoods of baobab fruit harvesters in South Africa. Harvesters were mostly women (98 %), many of whom were unemployed (98 %) and uneducated (70 %). The majority (68 %) received social grants and were involved in informal occupations (55 %), which contributed 35 and 18 % to total annual income respectively. The trade and direct-use value of non-timber forest products contributed 14 and 33 % to annual income, of which, baobab fruit made up 38 and 4 % respectively. Baobab fruit was the only non-timber forest product that had a higher income value (4×) than direct-use value. Cash earned was used to buy food (73 %) and invest in small businesses, suggesting a move from subsistence to cash economy. It is suggested that commercialization of baobab fruit will have far-reaching benefits; and that secured access to trees and investment in local beneficiation will further increase the value of the resource for many marginalized people in southern Africa.

Importance of non-timber forest products in native household economy

Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) have an important role in the household economy of forest fringe dwellers living in the dry-deciduous forests of Purulia, Bankura and West Midnapur districts of West Bengal, India. Due to the lack of agricultural land and industrial activities, forest fringe people collect forest products in regular basis for their livelihoods. They also make some value-added products to have some extra money. It is comparatively easier to calculate the monetary value of NTFPs, which are marketed at the local market or by intermediaries. However, the products which are normally collected for domestic uses carry enough monetary value too, but it never calculated in a proper way. It is very difficult to get a proper information from forest villagers that which product how much each household collect annually as the production of NTFPs vary from one year to another. A relative value can be calculated based on the importance, availability and quantity of these products. Key words: NTFPs, forest fringe dwellers, livelihoods, development, economy.

Contribution of non-timber forest products to livelihoods of communities in southeast Nigeria

This paper examines the value of non-timber forest products (NTFP) and their determinants in communities in the vicinity of the Okwangwo Division of the Cross River National Park, Nigeria. The data for this study were generated from personal interviews conducted in three villages located near the buffer area of the national park. The study showed that income from NTFP was almost 13% of the total annual income of the respondents. Income from NTFP was influenced by factors such as income from non-traditional employment, the distance of respondents' residences to the park, income from farming and age. The results suggest that a shift from primarily subsistence to a more of cash economy may lead to unsustainable exploitation of NTFP.

Estimating the Local Value of Non-Timber Forest Products to Pendjari Biosphere Reserve Dwellers in Benin

Estimating the Local Value of Non-Timber Forest Products to Pendjari Biosphere Reserve Dwellers in Benin. This paper uses an indices method based on participant ranking of species to quantify use–values of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) and the socio-economic factors that influence these values for people living around the Pendjari Biosphere Reserve in Benin. There were 76 species identified that had a high index value to people. The 10 most valued species were Parkia biglobosa, Adansonia digitata, Vitellaria paradoxa, Tamarindus indica, Lannea microcarpa, Vitex doniana, Hibiscus asper, Melochia corchorifolia, Khaya senegalensis, and Diospyros mespiliformis. Species values were influenced by the vegetative form of the species as well as by the gender of a participant and his/her affiliation to the ethnic group. The study also illustrates that women had a preference for NTFP species with high commercial and nutritional values, while men preferred plants that provide construction material and medicine. Moreover, the ethnic group that historically had more contact and interaction with the vegetation valued NTFPs more than any other group. The difference in value attributed to species by people was also driven by the vertical transmission of ethnobotanical knowledge in the study area. For long-term biodiversity conservation, it will be useful to involve the needs of all of the local communities in the design of a management plan and focus attention on the most important species.

The socioeconomic status of the non-timber forest product subsector in Swaziland

A wide spectrum of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) generally has a remarkable contribution to the household economy in rural areas. Most communities make a living either through their domestic or commercial use. The objective of this study was to review the current status of the NTFP sector and further compile an up-to-date list of major use categories of NTFPs. The review of the national study on the NTFP sector indicate an average annual value of the selected NTFPs groups of between US$19.8 million and US$79 million with a median value of US$49.38 million. The most important group from an economic point of view is medicinal plants with an average annual value of US$32.1 million, followed by fuel wood with an estimated annual value of US$13.5 million. In the natural accounting study it was revealed that the contribution of natural forests and woodlands in flow benefits, including the highlighted NTFPs, was equivalent to 2.2% of the total GDP, 20% of agriculture's GDP and 439% of the contribution of forestry reported in the national accounts for 2000. This current study reviewed past national, regional and international studies and developed a new list of 19 NTFP use categories subdivided into direct, indirect and intermediate uses. Subsequently, a matrix of commonly used botanical NTFPs was designed and includes most highly preferred species such as Sclerocarya birrea, Bauhinia galpinii, Berchemia zeyheri, Dichrostachys cinerea and others. However, the study concluded that there is still a profound lack of information on the status and total value of NTFPs in Swaziland and recommended that government, NGOs, the private sector, communities, and other interested and affected parties (including resource users) should work together to conduct research in order to generate, compile and disseminate information on the quantitative and qualitative statistical data on NTFPs, their socioeconomic uses and ecological and environmental values.

Quantifying and comparing the value of non-timber forest products in the Amazon

The use of sustainable harvest practices in the tropics is often proposed as a way to maintain the environment and address the poverty issues that dominate many tropical regions of the world. In theory, the adoption of these methods can provide win–win solutions to tropical deforestation because they address the environmental consequences of deforestation while increasing the welfare of forest inhabitants. However, there is little reliable data that can be used to test this hypothesis since many of the goods produced in sustainable systems do not have well-defined markets and are most often consumed at home. This paper examines the benefits of collecting and harvesting non-timber forest products in the tropics through various methods using household panel data collected in 1996 and 2000 in the Ouro Preto do Oeste region of Rondônia, Brazil. We estimate the use-value of land under forest, agriculture, and pasture and complement these estimations with census data and regression analysis. Our estimations reveal that households utilizing sustainable practices in the forms of agroforestry and the collection of non-timber forest products have significantly higher levels of diversification. We conclude that directing policy towards “win–win” strategies may not be desirable for reducing both poverty and deforestation in this region since we find no clear evidence that these can successfully be addressed simultaneously. Sustainable development policy should focus on increasing the value of the forest, or reducing the opportunity cost of leaving standing forest on the household lot, if sustainable production strategies are to be more attractive to households in the future.

Entrepreneurship in value chains of non-timber forest products

Entrepreneurship and innovation by actors in the market for non-timber forest products (NTFPs) cannot be fully understood without a proper understanding of the position and behaviour of actors in the value chain of NTFPs. This paper places the market for NTFPs in the emerging literature on value chains which has, so far, lacked a detailed analysis of NTFPs. Our analysis reveals that certain key entrepreneurs are a driving force of success throughout several NTFP value chains in both Bolivia and Mexico. Where market information is scarce, e.g. where producers are distant from consumers, key entrepreneurs often govern entire value chains. We argue that certain entrepreneurs are key to spreading success throughout the value chains of selected NTFPs offsetting potential negative consequences such as exploitation of more upstream actors (e.g. collectors and processors) in the value chains. Typical examples include the shopkeeper/organisation in Santa Cruz, Bolivia, who sources woven palm products from and supports several producers, and the entrepreneur in Mexico who established links between mushroom pickers in rural communities and brokers and consumers in Japan. Rather than criticising the monopolistic position of individuals, it is important to understand how the activity of key entrepreneurs can be supported in spreading successful commercialisation further and where necessary control negative impacts of their role. Our analysis indicates that policies to support commercialisation of the case study NTFPs would also need to be tailored to each value chain.

Household wealth status and natural resource use in the Kat River valley, South Africa

Much work has demonstrated the significant role and value of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in the livelihoods of rural people in southern Africa and elsewhere. The findings provide a mean or composite picture, averaged across the sample households within each community. Yet, within any given community, there is significant socio-economic differentiation. It is important to acknowledge such differentiation when considering policy and management interventions to support rural livelihoods and promote sustainable resource use. This paper reports on a study in South Africa, the objective of which was to explore wealth-related differences and similarities in the use and value of NTFPs. Data on NTFP consumption, purchase, and sale were collected from households in three rural villages. Households were divided into three wealth classes and patterns of NTFPs use between the classes examined. There was no difference in the proportions of households in each wealth class using NTFPs, nor the total number of NTFPs used per household. Yet, there was some supporting evidence that poorer households derive greater benefits from NTFPs than do wealthy or intermediate households. One clear difference was that, with increasing wealth, households purchased significantly more NTFPs, and a greater proportion of wealthy households did so. Conversely, a greater proportion of poor households were involved in the sale of one or more NTFPs, and they sold a greater number per household, compared to wealthy and intermediate households. Detailed examination of use and value of four NTFPs (fuelwood, wild fruits, edible herbs, and grass hand brushes) revealed that in all instances, the poorest households used more of the resource per capita than the other wealth classes. This was not the case for comparisons based on the total household as the unit of analysis. Gross annual direct-use value did not differ between the wealth classes for any of the four NTFPs examined, at the household level. But on a per capita basis, a significantly higher gross annual direct-use value was evident within poorer households for fuelwood and edible herbs. The significance of these differences is discussed.

The Economic Value of Non-Timber Forest Products—A Case Study from Malaysia

Knowledge of the value of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and their use patterns may provide input to the management of tropical forests to the benefit of local people. This study presents findings on the value of NTFP extraction by indigenous people, the Jah Hut, in Krau Wildlife Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia, including an analysis of factors influencing extraction levels. Data was collected in four villages using rapid rural appraisal and structured interviews of 127 households. The average value of extracted NTFPs was estimated using the indirect opportunity cost method. The average value of extraction is estimated at PPP US$ 2,455 hh_1 yr_1 and PPP US$ 40.7 ha-1 yr_1. There is evidence that poorer villages and households depend most on NTFP extraction. However, traditional Jah Hut activities, including NTFP extraction, are replaced by wage labour when available. It is argued that NTFP dependence is presently high, and thus NTFPs may contribute to improve rural livelihoods, but likely to be reduced as the Jah Hut are increasingly integrated into the Malaysian society. The advantages and disadvantages of using the indirect opportunity cost method to estimate the value of NTFPs are discussed.

COVER ARTICLE: Eroding Knowledge: An Ethnobotanical Inventory in Eastern Amazonia's Logging Frontier

Responding to the decline of game, fruit and fiber post-logging, communities along the Capim River in Para, Brazil, requested that research be initiated into the value of non-timber forest products. As a first step, an ethnobotanical inventory of one hectare of mature terra firme forest was conducted. The percentage use-values described reflect that Capimenses are knowledgeable about the use of many species (60% of inventoried species); however, active use has declined. Compared to other South American inventories, Capimenses demonstrate a higher degree of trade in timber, a lack of trade in non-timber products, the decreasing use of plants for technological purposes, and the description of the use of many species in the past tense. During the longitudinal study, the 15 most highly valued fruit, nut, game attracting, and medicinal tree species became included in the suite of species extracted by the timber industry.

Sustainable land-use in Peruvian flood plain forests: options, planning and implementation

Flood plains comprise over 12% of the lowland Peruvian Amazon, and they are economically important in agriculture, fishing, hunting, forestry and extraction of other forest products. Some special features of the flood plains are outlined and their implications for land-use are interpreted. A close interaction exists between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, implying that management needs to consider effects on both systems. By nature the flood plains are adapted to large perturbations, indicating that rough management interventions can be carried out, but only a limited proportion of each habitat is disturbed by nature at a time, suggesting that simultaneous profound large-scale interventions in certain habitats should be avoided. The high fertility of flood plain soils and periodical sedimentation hint that the risk of soil nutrient depletion is limited. The flood plain production potential is relatively high, although it varies much according to patterns of flooding and drainage, stressing the need to provide information on the geographic variation in these environmental factors. The culture and organisation of flood plain inhabitants is dynamic, and a patron system dominate in many economic activities. Few regulations control the access to and use of the flood plain natural resources, and no permanent tenure rights can be issued for flood plain land. This emphasises the need to promote adapted organisations and institutions, and to develop a land tenure system fostering incentives for management working on a long-term perspective. It was found that sustained timber production in the natural flood plain forests can have net present values (NPVs) up to US$ 250 per ha without accounting for growth enhancing effects. On the average the extraction value of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) was low, but certain habitats generated high economic benefits constituting a major part of the economy of many flood plain households. Domestication has a high potential and agroforestry is already widespread, but effects of flooding, bad drainage and risk of erosion by the river current are impediments to successful intensive land-use systems. Socio-economic distortions can be risked if land suited for agricultural subsistence production is gradually taken over by agriculturalists focusing on large-scale commercial production.