Non-farm Income Research Articles

Fostering Rice-Based Model Villages in India: Accomplishment & Impediments

ICAR-National Rice Research Institute (NRRI), Cuttack, India had taken up two tiny villages namely Gurujanga & Guali in Odisha state for developing as model villages and dissemination of improved rice production technologies. Adoption of few land mark rice varieties developed by ICAR-NRRI, Cuttack resulted huge yield advantage over varieties grown earlier. Non-farm income and labour force participation rate were key factors together with other improved traits for adoption of varieties and technologies.

Adoption of integrated crop-livestock management practices (ICLMPs) among men and women smallholder farmers in Ghana

Integrated crop-livestock management practices (ICLMPs) play a vital role in ensuring food security and improved welfare for smallholder households, however, studies that focus on ICLMP adoption in Ghana (including its gender dimension) remain scant. This paper examines gender differences in the drivers and intensity of ICLMP adoption using farm-level data from 638 smallholder farmers in Ghana. Employing Multivariate Probit, Tobit regression models and dominance analytical procedures, we find that adoption of ICLMPs is generally influenced by non-farm income, extension contacts and nativity. While age, credit access, soil fertility, distance to markets, total value of assets and research contacts influence the intensity of ICLMP adoption among the men, intensity of adoption among women farmers is influenced mainly by household size. The dominance analysis showed that being a native of the community/village where one farms had the strongest influence in intensifying ICLMP adoption, with gender differences being evident regarding the relative influence of the other variables. Policies to enhance the adoption of ICLMPs in Ghana could be designed to focus on women farmers who have large farm assets, access to extension and are engaged in non-farm income-generating activities

Effects of household-level attributes and agricultural land-use on deforestation patterns along a forest transition gradient in the Miombo landscapes, Zambia

Dry forests in tropical and subtropical areas continue to experience high deforestation rates that affect households' dependence on forest resources. Little remains understood about the relationship between household factors and deforestation patterns in Zambia. We integrate remotely sensed data with surveys of 1123 households collected in the Miombo areas between 2017 and 2019 to better understand the effects of household attributes on regional deforestation patterns along a forest transition gradient.We found, in early-to-mid-transition, deforestation patterns systematically decreased further from settlements (homesteads), but this was reversed in regions with advanced forest transition. The socio-demographic attributes, land and non-land-based attributes, and location factors differently affected deforestation across provinces. Although agricultural land-use was significantly associated with deforestation, no distinct patterns emerged across distance categories or along the forest transition. Furthermore, increases in non-farm income reduced the likelihood of high deforestation, but the impact was not always significant across provinces.Our results indicate that economic effects of distance in Miombo areas complement the forest transition, but are not exclusively related to crop productivity. We assume that different aspects of livelihoods can explain the deforestation patterns in the Miombo areas. Thus, forest management should be regional-specific, such as improving access to financial incentives in North-Western, and reforestation and agroforestry in Copperbelt and the Eastern Province.

Drivers of agricultural transformation in the coastal areas of the Vietnamese Mekong delta

Drivers of agricultural transformation vary from place to place. They need to be explored, especially under the new context of changing climate, environment and socio-economic development in coastal regions. This paper aims to discover the drivers of change through an analysis of the agricultural transformation process in the Vietnamese Mekong delta and then develop a framework for the next steps to meet sustainable development objectives. A mixed approach of qualitative and quantitative methods was applied to collect primary and secondary data. Major techniques used in data collection consist of Key Informant Interviews (KII), Focus Group Discussions (FGD) and household surveys with 203 farmers in three coastal provinces, including Ben Tre, Kien Giang and Soc Trang. The results showed that the agricultural sector has been transforming towards the diversification of crops and livelihoods. For example, there has been a shift from rice monoculture to integrated farming systems (i.e. rice-shrimp or grass-cattle) and a move from on-farm to more off-farm or non-farm incomes. This transformation was found to be driven by many factors that can be categorised into the ‘4Ps of change’, consisting of the Price, the Producer, the Place and the Policy. The 4Ps of change are not isolated but interrelated. Then, considering the 4Ps of change, a holistic framework for sustainable agricultural transformation (SAT) has been developed. What distinguishes this SAT framework from others is a combination of value chain theory and agribusiness concepts. Hence, it would create resource use efficiency, add more value to products, deliver healthy food and contribute to successful transformation in the future. Successful implementation would need the government’s readiness to provide a practical legal framework and efficient support to motivate all actors involved in the transformation process.

Do gender differences lead to unequal access to climate adaptation strategies in an agrarian context? Perceptions from coastal Bangladesh

ABSTRACT While people around the world are increasingly facing various climate-related stresses, women with limited resources in low income developing societies are often at a greater risk largely because of their pre-existing constraints on social, economic, political, and cultural resources and opportunities. In this paper, we investigate how gender differences influence farmers’ access to various resources that are critical for local climate adaptation in coastal Bangladesh. As one of the most climate-vulnerable regions in not only the country but the world, coastal Bangladesh is experiencing a significant increase in sea level rise, tropical cyclones, storm surges, coastal flooding, coastal erosions as well as unpredictable rainfall patterns. All of these climate related stresses directly contribute to the region’s increasing exposure to saltwater intrusion in coastal lands and freshwater sources. While a majority of the previous research has focused on community-based climate adaptation, there has been limited attention on how gender differences shape local farmers’ climate adaptation strategies. Using mixed-methods research, this article highlights the ways in which male-headed and female-headed farming households have differential access to locally available adaptation resources along with associated constraints or opportunities for adaptation and disaster risk reduction strategies vary substantially. Our findings suggest female-headed farms are less likely to sell their farmland or migrate away in search of non-farm income due to normative gendered expectations and socio-cultural restrictions. Therefore, female farmers are forced to pursue in-place farming adaptation strategies with limited external resources while relying on informal social networks for weather and climate information.

STUDY ON LIVELIHOOD DYNAMICS OF RURAL HOUSEHOLD OF MUNGELI DISTRICT OF CHHATTISGARH STATE INDIA

The study was carried out to study the livelihood dynamics of rural household of Mungeli district of Chhattisgarh state. Two blocks namely Lormi and Mungeli were taken into consideration for the study. A total sample size of 89 farmers was made from 07 villages. The study finds that the largest participation of rural household was in the livelihood activities like agriculture (crop production) with 95.50 per cent and non-farm (construction) with 26.96 per cent. Agriculture and non-farm were identified as the main two sources of income for rural households. The participation in both the livelihood activities estimated 84.96 per cent and 12.39 per cent respectively. Crop production and horticulture (vegetable production) were the main contributors to the farm income of rural households their contribution being 62.67 per cent and 24.29 per cent. PersonalSocial services and whole sale-retail trade-small stall were the main contributors to the non-farm income of rural households their contribution being 16.99 per cent and 3.62 per cent. The degree of diversification was found to be greater with 0.56 per cent among the landless and those belonging to lower farm-size groups. Shortage of irrigation water leads to certain problems including lower yields, decrease cultivated area. Therefore, the government should form efficient and strong policies for the better management of available water resources, ensuring equal availability to every farmer.

Revitalization plans for mountain ecological villages in South Korea

This research was conducted on mountain ecological villages (MEVs) which were established in South Korea since 1995 to identify problems and find ways to revitalize the MEVs. To this end, the construction and operation status of MEVs were investigated. Besides, the structure of major facilities and income sources was analyzed by dividing the types of MEVs into those of living environment improvement (LEI), simple income (SI), and self-reliance base (SRB) types. As a result, the LEI type lacked the number of people to work in the village and the average household income was 59.6% of the total average of MEVs. Also, it was difficult to maintain and manage the village facilities due to the aging of the facilities and insufficient joint revenue generation. And it was difficult to manage the village facilities due to the aging of the facilities and insufficient joint revenue generation. The SI type was generating the number of farming households and non-farming income above the average of the entire MEVs, although the proportion of the laborable population was relatively low. However, seasonal limitations of accommodation facilities, experience programs, and urban and mountain village interchanges were insufficient. The SRB type had a high proportion of the laborable population, a relatively large proportion of the return-to-the-rural population, and the income structure was also diversified. However, it was suffering from a lack of budget for the promotion of the village and the securing of personnel to be in charge continuously. To revitalize the MEVs, income sources will have to be diversified to cover the expenses required to run the village on their own as reinforcement of internal capabilities. Besides, it will need a strategy that can actively utilize the capital and manpower from outside.

Determinants of Profitability of Teff Producer Farmers in Menjar Shenkora Worda, North Shewa Zone, Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia

The study was conducted with the main objectives to see the Determinants of Profitability of Teff Producer Farmers in Menjar Shenkora Worda, North Shewa Zone, Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia. In order to accomplish the stud, both primary and secondary data were used. Primary data were collected from 350 teff producing farm households from 9 selected kebele administrations. For selection of farm households two stage random sampling technique was used. Hence, from 355 samples, 350/ (98.5 %/.) Households were willing to give all necessary information during survey. The data were also analyzed by logistic regression analysis. The regression result reveals that Family size, education level of household head, Distance from market, number of oxen, non-farm income and total costs are statistically significant at 1 % and 5 % level of precision. According to the study findings, the significant variables are the main determinant factors for profitability’s of teff producer farmers in the study area. On the other hand, the remaining variables like farmland size, credit access, extension contacts, price determination and amounts of teff productions are found to be statistically insignificant Thus, policy makers should work towards improving the access to more education, access to roads, supply credit to buy more oxen even there is agricultural machine at individual and group level, should create different opportunity to get alternative work or job access to teff producer farmers and some inputs should be subsidize at farm gate level to reduce their total costs of production by making different schemes in the areas. Keywords: Market Performance, Market channel, teff, actors, logistic regression model. DOI: 10.7176/JESD/12-7-04 Publication date: April 30 th 2021

CROP DIVERSIFICATION, PRODUCTIVITY AND DIETARY DIVERSITY: A GENDER PERSPECTIVE

Research background: Strengthening agriculture and food systems have a critical role to play in achieving the sustainable development goals of eliminating hunger and poverty; and increasing resilience to climatic shocks. Crop diversification has been recognized as a way of increasing resilience and reducing agricultural risk. Closing the gender gap could boost agricultural productivity and enhance welfare. Effects of crop diversification in enhancing dietary diversity amidst gender gap in agricultural productivity among smallholders have not been well established in Nigeria. Purpose of the article: The study was conducted to provide empirical evidence on crop diversification, productivity and dietary diversity of male and female-headed farming households in Nigeria. This has policy implications on development of inclusive and efficient agrifood system towards achieving the SDGs of eradicating poverty, hunger and gender equality. Methods: Secondary data from the 2015/16 Living Standard Measurement Survey-Integrated Survey on Agriculture (LSMS-ISA) was used for this study. Tobit regression model was employed to investigate the factors influencing crop diversification and dietary diversity while Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition method was used to decompose gender differentials in agricultural productivity. Findings and value added: Crop diversification index of male farmers is 0.10 (P<0.05) higher than female farmers. The Tobit regression results showed that farm income, education, household size, farm size and use of inorganic fertilizer increased crop diversification (P< 0.01). However, household expenditure (p< 0.05), non-farm income (p< 0.1), age and credit access (P< 0.01) reduced crop diversification. Less than half (45.22%) of the rural households consumed at least nine out of the 12 food groups in the previous week of the survey period. Crop diversification among other factors has a positive (P<0.01) effect on households’ dietary diversity. The results of the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition showed a gender productivity gap of 10.87% in favour of male farmers. The structural and endowment disadvantages of female farmers in land size and credit access are key drivers of gender differentials in agricultural productivity. The study suggests improvement in land tenure system and female farmers’ access to financial services in order to ensure gender productivity equality, women empowerment and efficient agrifood system.

Kontribusi pendapatan usahatani terhadap ekonomi rumah tangga petani di daerah pedesaan : review

The majority of people in rural areas in their daily life work as farmers and rely on agricultural products to meet their daily needs. The problem is that the income from farming is not sufficient to meet daily needs. Therefore, it is necessary to study the contribution of farm income to total household income. The method used in this research is the literature review method. The results of several studies indicate that the characteristics of farmers in rural areas have an average primary school education (more than 50%), while the average age of farmers is still in the productive age. The average contribution value of rice farming from several studies with different areas from several research results is more than 50%, meaning that farmers depend on rice farming days to fulfill all their daily needs rather than relying on side jobs, while the contribution of tobacco farming from several research results from less than 50%. In calculating the contribution of many researchers who have not included time susceptibility, either yearly, seasonally, or monthly, this will affect the tabulation of the calculation of non-farm income.

Determinants of agricultural loan decision making process for rice (Oryza sativa) farmers in Abuja, Nigeria. Applications of Heckman two-stage model and factor analysis

This study focuses on determinants of the agricultural loan decision-making process of rice (Oryza sativa) farmers in Abuja, Nigeria, using the Heckman two-stage model and factor analysis. This study was designed specifically to achieve the following objectives: determine the socio-economic profiles or characteristics of rice farmers, analyze the costs and returns of rice production, evaluate factors influencing rice farmers’ decision to obtain an agricultural loan, evaluate socio-economic factors influencing the amount of the agricultural loan, and determine the constraints or problems facing rice farmers. A multi-stage sampling design was employed. A total sample of one hundred (100) rice farmers was included, and primary data were utilized. Data were obtained through the use of a well-structured and well-designed questionnaire. Statistical and econometric tools used in analyzing data included descriptive statistics, gross margin analysis, financial analysis, the Heckman two-stage model, and principal component analysis. The results show that 63% of rice farmers were between the age of 31–50 years. The mean age was 41.90 years. About 65% of rice farmers were male, and 54% of them were married. Also, 93% of rice farmers had formal education and were literate. The household sizes were large, with an average of six persons per household. An average of 71,550 nairas was the loan amount granted to rice farmers by financial institutions. The average farm size amounted to 1.49 hectares. Factors influencing the decision of rice farmers to obtain agricultural loan included age (P &lt; 0.01), marital status (P &lt; 0.05), household size (P &lt; 0.10), educational level (P &lt; 0.05), farm size (P &lt; 0.05), farm and non-farm income (P &lt; 0.10), farm experience (P &lt; 0.05), collateral property (P &lt; 0.05), extension services (P &lt; 0.10), and awareness of loan or credit facilities (P &lt; 0.05). Rice production was profitable with a net farm income of 744,300 nairas. The gross margin ratio of 0.95 means that 95 kobos covered profits, taxes, expenses, interest, and depreciation for every naira invested in rice production activities. Socio-economic factors statistically and significantly influencing the amount of agricultural loan obtained by rice farmers included (P &lt; 0.05) sex (P &lt; 0.01), household size (P &lt; 0.05) and educational level (P &lt; 0.01). The constraints facing rice farmers in obtaining the agricultural loan and production activities included lack of collateral property, lack of fertilizer input, poor-quality feeder roads, lack of credit facilities, inadequate labor input, and complicated and costly administrative procedures to obtain a loan. It is recommended that agricultural loans be made available to rice farmers in sufficient amounts and at low-interest rates. Also, farm inputs, fertilizer inputs, improved seeds, and chemicals should be made available to rice farmers

Household-Level Determinants of Participation in Forest Support Programmes in the Miombo Landscapes, Zambia

The need to protect forest resources from unsustainable, yet rational, human actions has attracted global attention. This is because smallholder dependence on forests can degrade forest resources and cause deforestation. While efforts to understand forest programmes and motivations to protect forests have increased in recent decades, there remains a limited understanding of household factors affecting participation in forest support programmes, especially in the context of high-pressure areas, such as the Miombo woodlands. This study was conducted in the North-Western, Copperbelt and Eastern Province of Zambia. In each province, we selected landscapes consisting of protected and non-protected forest areas. We administered structured interviews to 1123 households and used logistic regression to estimate determinants of participation. We found that better education, landholding size, increased share of forest income, cash crops and non-farm income, and access to forests and markets have a negative impact on participation in forest support programmes. Being located in landscapes with protected areas was positively associated with participation. We suggest that, in order to increase participation, forest programmes should focus on households with low levels of education, limited livelihood opportunities, and poor access to markets. Besides, programmes should provide incentives, including support for farm inputs and at the same time encourage reforestation and agroforestry methods.

Analysis of net farm income and non-farm income of broiler farmers across different scale of production in Imo State, Nigeria

This study analyzed net farm income and non-farm income of broiler farmers across different scale of production in Imo State, Nigeria. Capital accumulation for reinvestment and expansion remains a challenge among broiler farmers in the study area. A multi-stage sampling technique was adopted, and a total of 9 LGAs were purposively selected from the 3 zones (Orlu, Owerri and Okigwe zone). Stratified random sampling was used in selecting 26 small-scale and 9 medium-scale farmers from Owerri Agricultural zone for the study. In Orlu, 15 small-scale, 15 medium-scale and 6 large-scale of broiler farmers were selected, while 15 small-scale, 11 medium-scale and 3 large-scale broiler farmers were selected from Okigwe Zone. This gave a total of 113 broiler farmers selected from the chosen LGA's in the state. Out of 113 broiler farmers selected only a total of 100 responses were found useful for the study. Descriptive statistics, profitability ratio and net income model tools were employed for analyses in this study. The profitability result revealed that the large-scale broiler production has the highest return on naira used with 174% followed by medium-scale production with 47% return on naira used and the least was small-scale production with 33% return on naira expended. The result reveals that broiler farming in the study area is profitable and has the ability to offset its own cost, and still generate substantial return on naira used from every additional N1 spent no matter the scale of operation. The study also shows that net farm income of broiler farmers (N7,690,429.50 for small-scale, N 17,615,997.00 for medium-scale and N 142,674,200.00 for large-scale) is significantly greater than their non-farm income irrespective of scale ofoperation. In an attempt to raise the net-income of broiler farmers vis-a-vis more capital to scale-up broiler production, small and medium-scale operators are encouraged to diversify their productions with other livestock enterprises like layer production enterprise, turkey production enterprise and goat production enterprise.

Potato Market Participation and Its Extents Evidence from Southwest Ethiopia: A Double Hurdle Approach

Potato is an important commodity for livelihood in many parts of Ethiopia. Potato producers in Ethiopia face sophisticated marketing challenges, including inadequate access to market and low amount of marketed surpluses due to subsistence-oriented production of potato. The study aimed to identify factors that determine the market participation and its extents. About 136 potato producers were selected randomly from peasant association found in Dedo Districts of Ethiopia. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected from primary sources. Descriptive and econometric methods of data analysis were used to analyze data from the survey. A double hurdle model was applied to investigate factors affecting market participation and its extents. Results of descriptive statistics revealed that out of the total sample producer, 87.5 % of sample household has participated in the potato market. Age, sex, education, land size allocated for potato, and non-farm income were significantly influencing potato market participation. Age, sex, education (years of schooling), non-farm income, active labor and land allocated for potato influenced smallholder farmers level of market participation.

Vulnerability of Smallholder Farmers to Climate Change-Induced Shocks in East Hararghe Zone, Ethiopia

Vulnerability assessment varies widely across households, countries, and regions. Though many previous studies assessed vulnerability to climate change, their unit of analysis was aggregate. Therefore, the objective of this study was to measure the vulnerability of smallholder farmers to climate change at the household level and identify its determinant factors in east Hararghe zone. A multi-stage sampling procedure was used to select districts, kebeles, and sample respondents. Vulnerability as expected poverty approach was used to measure household-level vulnerability. Logit model was also used to assess factors contributing to households’ vulnerability. The study revealed that 73% of households were vulnerable to climate-induced shocks. Households with better farm experience, land size, livestock ownership, access to credit, access to extension service, social capital, access to climate information, non-farm income, and headed by a male were not vulnerable to climate change; whereas households who were living in low and midland agro-ecologies, far from the market, and participating in productive safety-net programs were vulnerable to climate change. The study indicated that the vulnerability of smallholder farmers was sensitive to the minimum income required to maintain daily life. Income-generating activities that supplement farm income should be well designed in policy to reduce the vulnerability of smallholder farmers.

Social Work Responses and Household-level Determinants of Coronavirus Preparedness in Rural Ethiopia

ABSTRACT The novel coronavirus caused the death of many people globally, and in Ethiopia. The death of people due to COVID surpasses 1,466,289with more than 63,135,973 cases in the world. This study aimed to identify the barriers toward the understanding of COVID-19, the rural (agrarians) public commitment to respond coronavirus, and the factors that affect their preparedness in rural Ethiopia. Probit regression and descriptive statistics were used to analyze data from a sample of 190 respondents. The result revealed that the public infrastructural problems (roads, health centers, telecommunication and broadcasting service) were the main barriers identified in this study. In response, the agricultural and health extension providers, college and university students, local administrators and government official, religious leaders, and community elders were contributing to enhance the public understanding and preparedness. The model result confirmed that gender, age group, family education level, membership to communal association, family mobile usage, health extension service, non-farm income, and economic situation were significant factors for preparedness. Intervention aimed at easing identified key limit factors to rural and agrarian community preparedness as well as the way to enhance public understanding through reasonable support to local stakeholders against COVID-19.

Understanding the determinants of climate change adaptation strategies among smallholder maize farmers in South-west, Nigeria

Climate is one of the most important factors in agricultural productivity, which could directly or indirectly influence productivity since the climate is linked to physiological processes. It is, therefore, essential to understanding the various strategies used by farmers to mitigate the adverse impact of climate change and the factors that influence maize farmers' adoption and intensity of climate change adaptation strategies among smallholder maize farmers in South-west Nigeria. In all, a sample of three hundred and thirty (311) smallholder maize farmers were interviewed. A double-hurdle count data model was employed to estimate the factors influencing farmers' adoption of adaptation strategies while accounting for selection bias with the plugging of inverse mill ratio (IMR) as a regressor. Significant variables such as household size, depreciation ratio, frequency of extension visits, access to extension, and non-farm income were factors influencing the adoption of climate change adaptation strategies among maize farmers. Age of the respondent, age square, household size, farm-based organization (FBO), non-farm income, climate information, access to credit, farmers residing in Osun State (location_Osun), distance to market significantly influenced the intensity of climate change adaptation strategies. This study, therefore, concluded that farm-level policy efforts that aim to improve rural development should focus on farmers’ membership in FBO, increase the visits of extension agents, encourage non-farm income and access to climate change information, particularly during the off-cropping season. Policies and investment strategies of the government should be geared towards supporting improved extension service, providing on-farm demonstration training, and disseminating information about climate change adaptation strategies, particularly for smallholder farmers in Nigeria.

NAVIGATING FISH FOOD INSECURITY BY SIMULTANEOUS HOUSEHOLD AND MARKETED SURPLUS-LED PRODUCTIONS IN KOGI STATE OF NIGERIA

The study determined the factors influencing simultaneously household and marketed surplus-led fish production in Nigeria’s Kogi State using cross-sectional data collected from 105 fish farmers. The sample size was achieved using a multi-stage sampling technique and the collected data were elicited viz. structured questionnaire complemented with interview schedule. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to achieve the conceptualized objectives. Empirical evidences showed that marketed surplus-led fish production was affected by less risky non-farm incomes with high income turnover and capital paucity. However, marketable surplus-led production was enhanced by enlarged income, readily available demand that matches the supply and entrepreneurship zeal among the youthful population in the studied area. In view of the foregoing, the research recommends the need to strengthen the value chain of fish marketing so as to contain any challenge viz. market imperfection which in the long-run will jeopardize market-orientation of fish farming which is nascent among most of the farmers in the studied area. In addition, there is need to address gender inequality in order to arrest poverty vulnerability among women folk viz. budget gender mainstreaming so as to achieve growth and development which are pre-requisite for globalization.

Impact of microfinance programs in Thailand

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to analyze the impact of microfinance programs on the income and food expenditure of farm and nonfarm households in Thailand.Design/methodology/approachThe study employs secondary data from the Thai Socioeconomic Survey (cross-sectional data from 2017 and panel data from 2012 to 2017). The cross-sectional data (2017) include 43,210 households. Panel data from the 2012 and 2017 Socioeconomic surveys (SES surveys) include 4,406 households. The estimation methods include propensity score matching (PSM) and a fixed effect (FE) model.FindingsThe result shows that village funds (VFs) have a significant negative impact on income and food expenditure for both farm and nonfarm households. The empirical results reveal that the saving groups for production (SGPs) effects are positively significant in terms of income and food expenditure, but only for farm households. The FE model result also shows that while VFs have a negative impact on income they have a positive impact on food expenditure for farm households. In contrast, SPGs have no impact on both farm and nonfarm households' income and food expenditure.Practical implicationsFarm and nonfarm households require both welfare and microfinance programs. Microfinance programs can only help these households once they have the necessary education. The government should provide social programs and business skills for these households; completion of these courses should be a pre-requisite for accessing microfinance programs.Originality/valueThis study is unique because it reveals the microfinance impact between VFs and SGPs programs so that most low-income and poor people in Thailand can access basic financial services.

India's COVID-19 social assistance package and its impact on the agriculture sector

ContextCVOID-19 induced significant economic and social disruptions in India. Rural households, including smallholders, were affected by loss in migrant income, livelihood and farm and non-farm incomes. During this lockdown, the Indian government enacted several emergency legislations to provide direct and indirect relief to workers and households. India’s COVID-19 social assistance package, namely, PM-GKY, announced in March 2020, was designed to provide immediate relief to the vulnerable population. The PM-GKY provided cash direct benefit transfers (DBT) and in-kind supports (IKS) through existing schemes. ObjectivesThis study examines the impact of India’s government assistance package (known as Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Yojana or PM-GKY), announced immediately after the COVID-19 lockdown, on the procurement of agricultural inputs for the upcoming farming season. MethodsThe study uses a quasi-experimental method and survey data from 1,789 smallholder households in three northern Indian states (Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh). ResultsThe result suggests that the fungibility of funds received under the government transfer package was significant in alleviating credit constraints and increasing agricultural investments in agricultural inputs. The farmers who received benefits from the PM-GKY scheme spent significantly more on the procurement of seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides. ConclusionsThe disbursement of cash transfers in the three states showed that emergency relief packages had reached the vulnerable sections of Indian society. Overall, 89-94% of households benefited from direct cash transfers. Perhaps lower transaction costs, minimal leakages, and immediate delivery make a strong case for direct cash transfers. The above advantages facilitate the provision of relief to a large proportion of vulnerable sections of Indian society in a short period.