Non-detergent Sulfobetaine Research Articles

CE methods for charge variant analysis of mAbs and complex format biotherapeutics.

Charge heterogeneity analysis of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and complex formats, such as bispecifics, is crucial for therapeutic applications. In this study, we developed two capillary electrophoresis (CE)-based methods, capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) and imaged capillary isoelectric focusing (iCIEF), for analyzing a broad spectrum of mAbs and complex mAb formats. For CZE, we introduced a new buffer system and optimized the background electrolyte (BGE) with an alternative dynamic coating agent and a superior polymeric additive. The pH of the BGE was increased, leading to enhanced resolution of high pI and complex format mAbs. In iCIEF, we identified an ampholyte combination offering a highly linear pH gradient and covering a suitable pH range. We also investigated alternatives to denaturing stabilizers and found that non-detergent sulfobetaine 195 exhibited excellent properties for iCIEF applications. These optimized methods provide a framework for the charge heterogeneity analysis of therapeutic mAbs and complex formats.

Modulation of Double Zwitterionic Block Copolymer Aggregates by Zwitterion-Specific Interactions.

Transformable double hydrophilic block copolymer assemblies are valid as a biocompatible smart macromolecular system. The molecular mechanisms in the spontaneous assembly of double zwitterionic diblock copolymers composed of a poly(carboxybetaine methacrylate) (PCB2) and a poly(sulfobetaine methacrylate) (PSB4) chains (PCB2-b-PSB4) were investigated by the modulation of the aggregates in response to nondetergent zwitterions. The PCB2-b-PSB4 diblock copolymers with a high degree of polymerization PSB4 block produced aggregates in salt-free water through "zwitterion-specific" interactions. The PCB2-b-PSB4 aggregates were dissociated by the addition of nondetergent sulfobetaine (SB4) and carboxybetaine (CB2) molecules, while the aggregates showed different aggregation modulation processes for SB4 and CB2. Zwitterions with different charged groups from SB4 and CB2, glycine and taurine, hardly disrupted the PCB2-b-PSB4 aggregates. The PCB2-b-PSB4 aggregate modulation efficiency of SBs associated with the intercharge hydrocarbon spacer length (CSL) rather than the symmetry with the SB in the PSB chain. These zwitterion-specific modulation behaviors were rationalized based on the nature of zwitterions including partial charge density, dipole moment, and hydrophobic interactions depending on the charged groups and CSL.

Zwitterion Nondetergent Sulfobetaine-Modified SnO2 as an Efficient Electron Transport Layer for Inverted Organic Solar Cells.

Tin oxide (SnO2) has been widely accepted as an effective electron transport layer (ETL) for optoelectronic devices because of its outstanding electro-optical properties such as its suitable band energy levels, high electron mobility, and high transparency. Here, we report a simple but effective interfacial engineering strategy to achieve highly efficient and stable inverted organic solar cells (iOSCs) via a low-temperature solution process and an SnO2 ETL modified by zwitterion nondetergent sulfobetaine 3-(4-tert-butyl-1-pyridinio)-1-propanesulfonate (NDSB-256-4T). We found that NDSB-256-4T helps reduce the work function of SnO2, resulting in more efficient electron extraction and transport to the cathode of iOSCs. NDSB-256-4T also passivates the defects in SnO2, which serves as recombination centers that greatly reduce the device performance of iOSCs. In addition, NDSB-256-4T provides the better interfacial contact between SnO2 and the active layer. Thus, a higher power conversion efficiency (PCE) and longer device stability of iOSCs are expected for a combination of SnO2 and NDSB-256-4T than for devices based on SnO2 only. With these enhanced interfacial properties, P3HT:PC60BM-based iOSCs using SnO2/NDSB-256-4T (0.2 mg/mL) as an ETL showed both a higher average PCE of 3.72%, which is 33% higher than devices using SnO2 only (2.79%) and excellent device stability (over 90% of the initial PCE remained after storing 5 weeks in ambient air without encapsulation). In an extended application of the PTB7-Th:PC70BM systems, we achieved an impressive average PCE of 8.22% with SnO2/NDSB-256-4T (0.2 mg/mL) as the ETL, while devices based on SnO2 exhibited an average PCE of only 4.45%. Thus, the use of zwitterion to modify SnO2 ETL is a promising way to obtain both highly efficient and stable iOSCs.

NMR spectra of PB2 627, the RNA-binding domain in influenza A virus RNA polymerase that contains the pathogenicity factor lysine 627, and improvement of the spectra by small osmolytes

The influenza A virus, which has an RNA genome, requires RNA-dependent RNA polymerase for transcription and replication. The polymerase is comprised of the subunits PA, PB1, and PB2. The C-terminal RNA-binding domain in PB2 contains lysine 627 (PB2 627), which is associated with pathogenicity and host range. However, the structure and molecular mechanism of PB2 627 in solution remain obscure. Here, we investigated PB2 627 in solution by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and detected inhomogeneity in the intensities of backbone amide proton signals due to local fluctuations in structure. To characterize the effects of chemical chaperones on spectral data and improve the data quality, we tested 20 different additives, including L-arginine L-glutamate salt, (L-arginine)2SO4, glycerol, β-octylglucoside, 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl) dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonate, Na2SO4, 1,5-diaminopentane, 1,4-diaminobutane, trehalose, sucrose, glycine, trimethylamine N-oxide, β-alanine, L-α-alanine, hydroxyectoine, betaine, L-proline, and non-detergent sulfobetaine 195, 201, and 256. We evaluated the quality of the resulting spectra by calculating the standard deviation and average of the ratio of signal intensities to noise level of amide peaks, as well as the ratio of the standard deviation to the average. NMR-profile analysis revealed diverse effects of additives on the dynamic properties of PB2 627. Based on such criteria, we found that small osmolytes such as glycine and L-α-alanine reduced structural fluctuations and improved the quality of spectral data, which is likely to facilitate a detailed NMR-based structural analysis. The methodology developed here may also be more generally useful for evaluating the effects of chemical chaperones on the structural integrity of proteins.

Imaged capillary isoelectric focusing in native condition: A novel and successful example

Imaged capillary isoelectric focusing (icIEF) separates ampholytic components of biomolecules in an electric field according to their isoelectric points and has been used for protein charge variants quantification and characterization. Denaturants are ordinarily incorporated into icIEF to stabilize charge species in solution. In certain circumstances, however, denaturants are detrimental to stable isoelectric separation of proteins due to their unique structural and biophysical features, such as an aggregation-prone antibody we encountered recently. Here we report our novel matrix formula non-detergent sulfobetaine and taurine (NDSB-T). It is deprived of denaturants that notably ameliorates the assay robustness and peak resolution for this antibody. NDSB-T is a combination of non-detergent sulfobetaine (NDSB) and taurine possessing the stabilization and separation power while maintaining protein integrity. As a result, assay throughputs are tremendously increased for more than 10 folds along with extraordinarily improved assay accuracy. Furthermore, NDSB-T can separate and quantify protein charge species in native state and therefore avoid partial denaturation derived peaks which are often misleading and hard to characterize. NDSB-T may be a valuable tool for proteins incompatible with conventional icIEF matrices and potentially opens a new window for icIEF assay in native conditions.

3F1034 non-detergent sulfobetaine(NDSB)によるG蛋白質共役型受容体(GPCR)の熱安定化(膜蛋白質,口頭発表)

3F1034 non-detergent sulfobetaine(NDSB)によるG蛋白質共役型受容体(GPCR)の熱安定化(膜蛋白質,口頭発表)

Stepwise Adaptations to Low Temperature as Revealed by Multiple Mutants of Psychrophilic α-Amylase from Antarctic Bacterium

The mutants Mut5 and Mut5CC from a psychrophilic α-amylase bear representative stabilizing interactions found in the heat-stable porcine pancreatic α-amylase but lacking in the cold-active enzyme from an Antarctic bacterium. From an evolutionary perspective, these mutants can be regarded as structural intermediates between the psychrophilic and the mesophilic enzymes. We found that these engineered interactions improve all the investigated parameters related to protein stability as follows: compactness; kinetically driven stability; thermodynamic stability; resistance toward chemical denaturation, and the kinetics of unfolding/refolding. Concomitantly to this improved stability, both mutants have lost the kinetic optimization to low temperature activity displayed by the parent psychrophilic enzyme. These results provide strong experimental support to the hypothesis assuming that the disappearance of stabilizing interactions in psychrophilic enzymes increases the amplitude of concerted motions required by catalysis and the dynamics of active site residues at low temperature, leading to a higher activity.

N‐terminal domain of the V‐ATPase a2‐subunit displays integral membrane protein properties

V-ATPase is a multisubunit membrane complex that functions as nanomotor coupling ATP hydrolysis with proton translocation across biological membranes. Recently, we uncovered details of the mechanism of interaction between the N-terminal tail of the V-ATPase a2-subunit isoform (a2N(1-402)) and ARNO, a GTP/GDP exchange factor for Arf-family small GTPases. Here, we describe the development of two methods for preparation of the a2N(1-402) recombinant protein in milligram quantities sufficient for further biochemical, biophysical, and structural studies. We found two alternative amphiphilic chemicals that were required for protein stability and solubility during purification: (i) non-detergent sulfobetaine NDSB-256 and (ii) zwitterionic detergent FOS-CHOLINE®12 (FC-12). Moreover, the other factors including mild alkaline pH, the presence of reducing agents and the absence of salt were beneficial for stabilization and solubilization of the protein. A preparation of a2N(1-402) in NDSB-256 was successfully used in pull-down and BIAcore™ protein-protein interaction experiments with ARNO, whereas the purity and quality of the second preparation in FC-12 was validated by size-exclusion chromatography and CD spectroscopy. Surprisingly, the detergent requirement for stabilization and solubilization of a2N(1-402) and its cosedimentation with liposomes were different from peripheral domains of other transmembrane proteins. Thus, our data suggest that in contrast to current models, so called "cytosolic" tail of the a2-subunit might actually be embedded into and/or closely associated with membrane phospholipids even in the absence of any obvious predicted transmembrane segments. We propose that a2N(1-402) should be categorized as an integral monotopic domain of the a2-subunit isoform of the V-ATPase.

A nondetergent sulfobetaine improves protein unfolding reversibility in microcalorimetric studies

A nondetergent sulfobetaine (NDSB) was found to improve unfolding reversibility of several proteins by inhibiting heat-induced aggregation. As a consequence, Δ H cal/Δ H vH ratios were also improved to values close to 1 for a two-state unfolding. NDSB is effective in a wide range of pH values and especially at acidic pH generally used to calculate Δ C p values by the Kirchhoff relation. The sulfobetaine also allows recording protein refolding by protecting the heat-induced unfolded state against aggregation.

Purification, crystallization and preliminary crystallographic studies of SPCI-chymotrypsin complex at 2.8 A resolution.

A binary complex of the Schizolobium parahyba chymotrypsin inhibitor (SPCI) with chymotrypsin was purified by size-exclusion chromatography and crystallized by the sitting-drop vapour-diffusion method with 100 mM MES-NaOH pH 5.5, 20%(w/v) PEG 6000, 200 mM LiCl as precipitant and 200 mM nondetergent sulfobetaine molecular weight 201 Da (NDSB-201) as an additive. SPCI is a small protein with 180 amino-acid residues isolated from S. parahyba seeds and is able to inhibit chymotrypsin at a 1:1 molar ratio by forming a stable complex. X-ray data were collected to 2.8 A resolution from a single crystal of the SPCI-chymotrypsin binary complex under cryogenic conditions. The crystal belongs to space group P2(1)2(1)2(1), with unit-cell parameters a = 45.28, b = 64.57, c = 169.23 A, and the R(merge) is 0.122 for 11 254 unique reflections. A molecular-replacement solution was found using the preliminary crystal structure of SPCI and the structure of chymotrypsin (PDB code 4cha) independently as search models.

Preparation, crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction analysis of the DNA-binding domain of the Ets transcription factor in complex with target DNA.

The Ets2 transcription factor is a member of the Ets transcription-factor family. Ets2 plays a role in the malignancy of cancer and in Down's syndrome by regulating the transcription of various genes. The DNA-binding domain of Ets2 (Ets domain; ETSD), which contains residues that are highly conserved among Ets transcription-factor family members, was expressed as a GST-fusion protein. The aggregation of ETSD produced after thrombin cleavage could be prevented by treatment with NDSB-195 (nondetergent sulfobetaine 195). ETSD was crystallized in complex with DNA containing the Ets2 target sequence (GGAA) by the hanging-drop vapour-diffusion method. The best crystals were grown using 25% PEG 3350, 80 mM magnesium acetate, 50 mM sodium cacodylate pH 5.0/5.5 as the reservoir at 293 K. The crystals belonged to space group C2, with unit-cell parameters a = 85.89, b = 95.52, c = 71.89 A, beta = 101.7 degrees and a V(M) value of 3.56 A(3) Da(-1). Diffraction data were collected to a resolution of 3.0 A.

Thermostability of Irreversible Unfolding α-Amylases Analyzed by Unfolding Kinetics

For most multidomain proteins the thermal unfolding transitions are accompanied by an irreversible step, often related to aggregation at elevated temperatures. As a consequence the analysis of thermostabilities in terms of equilibrium thermodynamics is not applicable, at least not if the irreversible process is fast with respect the structural unfolding transition. In a comparative study we investigated aggregation effects and unfolding kinetics for five homologous alpha-amylases, all from mesophilic sources but with rather different thermostabilities. The results indicate that for all enzymes the irreversible process is fast and the precedent unfolding transition is the rate-limiting step. In this case the kinetic barrier toward unfolding, as measured by unfolding rates as function of temperature, is the key feature in thermostability. The investigated enzymes exhibit activation energies (E(a)) between 208 and 364 kJmol(-1) and pronounced differences in the corresponding unfolding rates. The most thermostable alpha-amylase from Bacillus licheniformis (apparent transition temperature, T(1/2) approximately 100 degrees C) shows an unfolding rate which is four orders of magnitude smaller as compared with the alpha-amylase from pig pancreas (T(1/2) approximately 65 degrees C). Even with respect to two other alpha-amylases from Bacillus species (T(1/2) approximately 86 degrees C) the difference in unfolding rates is still two orders of magnitude.

Investigation of protein refolding using a fractional factorial screen: A study of reagent effects and interactions

A recurring obstacle for structural genomics is the expression of insoluble, aggregated proteins. In these cases, the use of alternative salvage strategies, like in vitro refolding, is hindered by the lack of a universal refolding method. To overcome this obstacle, fractional factorial screens have been introduced as a systematic and rapid method to identify refolding conditions. However, methodical analyses of the effectiveness of refolding reagents on large sets of proteins remain limited. In this study, we address this void by designing a fractional factorial screen to rapidly explore the effect of 14 different reagents on the refolding of 33 structurally and functionally diverse proteins. The refolding data was analyzed using statistical methods to determine the effect of each refolding additive. The screen has been miniaturized for automation resulting in reduced protein requirements and increased throughput. Our results show that the choice of pH and reducing agent had the largest impact on protein refolding. Bis-mercaptoacetamide cyclohexane (BMC) and tris (2-carboxyethylphosphine) (TCEP) were superior reductants when compared to others in the screen. BMC was particularly effective in refolding disulfide-containing proteins, while TCEP was better for nondisulfide-containing proteins. From the screen, we successfully identified a positive synergistic interaction between nondetergent sulfobetaine 201 (NDSB 201) and BMC on Cdc25A refolding. The soluble protein resulting from this interaction crystallized and yielded a 2.2 Angstroms structure. Our method, which combines a fractional factorial screen with statistical analysis of the data, provides a powerful approach for the identification of optimal refolding reagents in a general refolding screen.

Overexpression in <I>Escherichia coli</I> and Functional Reconstitution of Anchovy Trypsinogen From the Bacterial Inclusion Body

We have synthesized and optimized a high-yielding Escherichia coli expression system to produce trypsinogen from anchovy Engraulis japonicus and have developed conditions for its successful refolding. Recombinant anchovy trypsinogen precipitated in E. coli Rosetta (DE3) pLacI strain as inclusion bodies was denatured by 6 M guanidine-HCl followed by refolding with drop wise addition to a large excess of a folding buffer containing 0.5 M non-detergent sulfobetaine (NDSB-251) and a redox potential of oxidized and reduced glutathiones. The folded trypsinogen was autocatalytically activated to its mature form, trypsin, and purified with a MonoQ ion-exchange column. NH2-terminal amino acid sequencings revealed that E. coli efficiently processed NH2-terminal methionine residue from the expressed trypsinogen and that trypsinogen was activated at the correct site to generate active trypsin. The recombinant enzyme showed kinetic properties comparable to those of the native enzyme and demonstrated a typical cleavage preference for arginine over lysine residue against a protein substrate. The optimized expression and folding procedures yielded 12 mg of purified, active trypsin from 1 L of bacterial culture or 45 g wet weight cells, which is quite enough for various analytical and semipreparative purposes.

Crystallization and preliminary X-ray analysis of xylanase B from Clostridium stercorarium.

Recombinant mature xylanase B from Clostridium stercorarium has been prepared and crystallized by the sitting-drop vapour-diffusion method using 4 mg ml(-1) purified enzyme, 10.3%(w/v) polyethylene glycol 1500, 8.6%(v/v) glycerol and 0.34 M non-detergent sulfobetaine 195. A suitable crystal grew after incubation for ten weeks at 293 K. The crystal belonged to space group P2(1)2(1)2(1), with unit-cell parameters a = 64.76, b = 96.60, c = 138.44 A. X-ray diffraction data were collected to 1.80 A resolution.

Profiling and comprehensive expression analysis of ABC transporter solute-binding proteins of Bacillus subtilis membrane based on a proteomic approach.

We analyzed ABC transporter solute-binding proteins (SBPs) of the Bacillus subtilis membrane using a proteomic approach. We prepared a washed cell membrane fraction that was insoluble in 134 mM nondetergent sulfobetaine and then extracted proteins using mixtures of detergents in a stepwise manner. The membrane proteins were resolved by three two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (2-D PAGE) or two one-dimensional (1-D) PAGE procedures, electroblotted, and digested in the presence of 5% or 80% acetonitrile. Thereafter, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight-mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) identified 637 proteins corresponding to 15.9% of the total cellular proteins. We predicted that among these, 256 were membrane proteins, 101 were lipoproteins or secretory proteins and 280 were soluble proteins containing peripheral proteins that function in both the cytoplasm and the cell membrane such as SecA and FtsY. Among the 637 proteins, we identified 30 SBPs among 38 importers predicted by a bioinformatic search of the genome. We confirmed expression of the genes for the 30 SBPs using DNA microarray analysis. We compared the 2-D gel separation profiles of submembrane fractions solubilized by 1% n-dodecyl-beta-D-maltoside from cells cultured on Luria Bertani (LB), S7, and S7 medium without glutamate as well as DNA microarray data on LB and S7. The results suggested that YcdH, YtmK and YurO are binding proteins for Mn(++), glutamate and glucose, respectively, and that YqiX and YxeM are binding proteins for amino acids (tryptophan in S7 medium).

Cloning, expression and preliminary crystallographic studies of the potential drug target purine nucleoside phosphorylase from Schistosoma mansoni.

The parasite Schistosoma mansoni, unlike its mammalian hosts, lacks the de novo pathway for purine biosynthesis and depends on salvage pathways for its purine requirements. The gene encoding one enzyme of this pathway, purine nucleoside phosphorylase from S. mansoni (SmPNP) was identified, fully sequenced and cloned into the bacterial expression vector pMAL c2G to produce a protein in fusion with maltose-binding protein. The recombinant fusion protein was expressed at high levels and was purified in a single step by amylose resin affinity chromatography. After factor Xa cleavage, SmPNP was purified using a cation-exchange column and crystallized by hanging-drop vapour diffusion using polyethylene glycol 1500 as precipitant in the presence of 20% glycerol in acetate buffer. The use of the non-detergent sulfobetaine 195 (NDSB 195) as an additive had a marked effect on the size of the resulting crystals. Two data sets were obtained, one from a crystal grown in the absence of NDSB 195 and one from a crystal grown in its presence. The crystals are isomorphous and belong to the space group P2(1)2(1)2(1). It is intended to use the structures in the discovery and development of specific inhibitors of SmPNP.

Immunization with the recombinant PorB outer membrane protein induces a bactericidal immune response against Neisseria meningitidis.

Infections with Neisseria meningitidis are characterized by life-threatening meningitis and septicemia. The meningococcal porin proteins from serogroup B meningococci have been identified as candidates for inclusion in vaccines to prevent such infections. In this study, we investigated the vaccine potential of the PorB porin protein free of other meningococcal components. The porB gene from a strain of Neisseria meningitidis expressing the class 3 outer membrane porin protein (PorB3) was cloned into the pRSETB vector, and the protein was expressed at high levels in a heterologous host Escherichia coli. The recombinant protein was purified to homogeneity by affinity chromatography and used for immunization after incorporation into liposomes and into micelles composed either of zwitterionic detergent or nondetergent sulfobetaine. The immunogenicity of these preparations was compared to recombinant PorB protein adsorbed to Al(OH)(3) adjuvant as a control. Although sera raised against the protein adsorbed to Al(OH)(3) reacted with the purified recombinant protein, sera raised against liposomes and micelles showed greater activity with native protein, as measured by enzyme immunoassay with outer membranes and by whole-cell immunofluorescence. Reactivity with native protein was considerably enhanced by incorporation of the adjuvant monophosphoryl lipid A into the liposome or micelle preparations. Recognition of the native protein was in a serotype-specific manner and was associated with the ability of the antisera to promote high levels of serotype-specific complement-mediated killing of meningococci. These results demonstrate that the PorB protein should be considered as a component of a vaccine designed to prevent serogroup B meningococcal infection.