Non-athletes Research Articles

Hip and shoulder flexibility in novice rhythmic gymnasts and age-matched controls: Inter-limb asymmetry

Rhythmic gymnastics is a sport of asymmetry and lateral preferences, so the main objective of this study was to examine and compare hip and shoulder range of motion (ROM) and inter-limb asymmetry in 44 rhythmic gymnasts (RGs) and 51 age-matched non-athletes (NAs), i.e. controls. The baseline characteristics of 95 female participants, divided into two age-group categories (U8: 6–8 years, N=36; U11: 8–11 years, N=59) were established, as well as their hip (right/left hip flexion, right/left hip extension, right/left hip abduction, in °) and shoulder ROM (right/left shoulder flexion, right/left shoulder extension, in °), and asymmetry index (ASI, in %) was calculated. Significant differences between RGs and NAs were established (the exception is hip and shoulder extension in U8s, p>0.05), with greater ROM values recorded in RGs. Significant age differences were recorded among RGs in hip flexion and left hip abduction (p<0.05), in favor of U11s, and within NAs only in the case of right hip flexion (p=0.017), but in favor of U8s. The presence of asymmetries (ASI>15%), as well as its absence, is established in both RGs and NAs, but statistically significant side-to-side differences were recorded in U8 NAs (shoulder flexion, p=0.044) and U11 NAs (shoulder extension, p=0.057).

Saccade Latency and Metrics in the Interleaved Pro- and Anti-Saccade Task in Open Skill Sports Athletes.

Evidence has demonstrated that athletes exhibit superior cognitive performance associated with executive control. In the oculomotor system, this function has been examined using the interleaved pro-saccade and anti-saccade task (IPAST), wherein participants, prior to target appearance, are instructed to either automatically look at the peripheral target (pro-saccade) or suppress the automatic response and voluntarily look in the opposite direction (anti-saccade). While the IPAST has provided much insight into sensorimotor and inhibitory processing, it has yet to be performed in athletes. Moreover, limited research has examined saccade metrics in athletes. Here, we examined saccade latency and movement kinematics in the IPAST among athletes (N = 40) and nonathletes (NON) (N = 40). Higher direction error rates were obtained in the anti-saccade compared to the pro-saccade condition, with no differences between athletes and NONnoted. Significantly faster saccade latencies were observed in athletes compared to NON in both conditions, in addition to faster pro-saccades compared to anti-saccades. Furthermore, athletes showed significantly higher frequencies and faster latencies of express saccades compared to NON in correct pro-saccades. Additionally, athletes exhibited significantly faster latencies of express saccades compared to NON in erroneous anti-saccades. Differences in saccade metrics between athletes and NON were not seen. Overall, these findings demonstrate that athletes display altered saccade performance likely associated with sensorimotor and preparatory processing, highlighting the potential of using IPAST to objectively investigate sensorimotor and cognitive functions in athletes.

High prevalence of stress fractures and long-term amenorrhoea in high endurance female athletes: The misleading lack of correlation with bone mineral density

Aim & objectivesFemales who engage in high levels of sports have a high prevalence of menstrual cycle disorders and bone stress injuries (BSI). In this study, we determined the prevalence of menstrual disorders and fractures in female athletes and their association with bone mineral density (BMD) parameters. Material & methodsCross-Sectional Study. Forty-one female athletes from a public High-Performance Regional Centre; 24 high-endurance athletes (HEA) and 17 other athletes, were included. To form the control group, we invited medical students from a public University. Twenty-nine non-athletes (NA) were included. A health surveys and a dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) were conducted for all participants. ResultsAmong the participants (median age, 24 years; body mass index, 21 kg/m2), the percentage of long-term amenorrhoea was 42 % in HEA vs. 0 % in NHEA (OR 25.35; 95 % CI 1.37–470.50, p = 0.008) or 10 % in NA (OR 6.20; 95 % CI 1.46–26.24, p = 0.022), and the percentage of BSI was 29 % in HEA vs. 0 % in NHEA or NA. Both groups of female athletes (HEA and NHEA) showed higher Z-scores than those of NA in the femur; however, only NHEA had a significant increase in the BMD on lumbar spine than that of NA. ConclusionThe prevalence of long-term amenorrhoea and/or BSI was significantly higher in the HEA than in the NHEA or NA females. In contrast, HEA, like NHEA, had higher BMD values in the femur than those of controls. It is unlikely that DXA parameters can be used to estimate cortical BSI risk in this population.

Exploring 3D Pelvis Orientation: A Cross-Sectional Study in Athletes Engaged in Activities with and without Impact Loading and Non-Athletes.

Female athletes subjected to various types of impact loading, especially over a long period of time, may experience changes in their pelvic orientation, which may affect their sport performance and increase the likelihood of injury. The aim of the present study was to determine whether female athletes involved in high-impact loading sports (HILS), odd-impact loading sports (OILS), and repetitive non-impact loading sports (NILS) demonstrate changes in pelvis orientation compared to non-athletes (NATH). Pelvic orientation was determined using Euler/Cardan angles, calculated from the coordinates of the right, and left anterior superior iliac spines and pubic symphysis via a novel method. Two-way ANOVA tests showed significant differences between groups for pelvis position in the frontal plane (p < 0.05), with HILS and OILS demonstrating greater pelvic obliquity compared to NILS athletes and NATH. Significant main effects were also obtained for directions within the sagittal plane (p < 0.001). Significant within-group differences were observed in sagittal pelvic position among female athletes engaged in NILS (p < 0.01) and non-athletes (NATH) (p < 0.05), with a greater anterior pelvic tilt compared to posterior. Our findings suggest that pelvis orientation in female athletes across sports is influenced by sport-specific impact loads, potentially affecting performance and injury occurrence.

Sticking the landing: A comparison of shod vs barefoot landing kinetics and foot muscle characteristics in gymnasts, cheerleaders, and non-athletes.

The ability to control landings and stabilize quickly is essential in sports like gymnastics and cheerleading, where landing quality impacts scores. The similarities and contrasts between these sports, where one trains primarily barefoot and the other shod, may increase understanding of the kinetic role of the foot during landings. Sixteen gymnasts (GYM), sixteen cheerleaders (CHR), and sixteen non-athletes (NAT) performed single-foot shod and barefoot drop landings onto a force plate. Foot muscle strength was assessed using a custom test and ultrasound imaging was used to measure six foot muscles. Group differences in muscle sizes and strength measurements were compared using one-way ANOVAs (α = 0.05). Landing mechanics metrics were evaluated using 3 x 2 between-within ANOVAs (α = 0.05). Pairwise comparisons were made using Tukey post-hoc tests. Barefoot landings resulted in greater peak vertical ground reaction force (pVGRF) and lower time to pVGRF (TTpVGRF). Significant group main effect differences were found between GYM and NAT for all kinetic measures (GYM: shorter time to stability (TTS) and TTpVGRF, and greater pVGRF), while no significant differences in landing kinetics were found between CHR and either GYM or NAT. No interactions were found between group and condition. GYM and CHR had significantly greater summed foot muscle size than NAT, however, only CHR displayed significantly greater toe flexion force than NAT. Our data suggests that while wearing shoes does not affect groups differently, footwear reduces initial peak VGRFs but does not influence later stabilization times.

Comparing the Effects of Swimming Among Male and Female Elite Athletes on Bone Mineral Density Acquisition

Background: Despite the many therapeutic benefits of swimming, there is still conflicting evidence about its benefits for bone health and osteoporosis prevention, especially in elite swimmers according to their sex. It is known that sex differences can affect the acquisition of minerals by the bone. Objectives: The aims of this study were to compare the bone mineral density (BMD) of swimmers with that of non-athletes (NA) and compare the corresponding values in male (MS) and female swimmers (FS). Methods: This cross-sectional study was performed on young athletes (18 - 24 years old) of the Iranian national swimming team, who were training for at least 11 hours per week and NA. To this end, 56 swimmers (14 males, 14 females) and NA (14 males, 14 females) were enrolled in 4 groups. The DEXA device was used to assess BMD (g/cm2) and T-scores of the proximal femur and lumbar spine. Results: All the swimmers had significantly higher BMD of the femur neck, trochanter, Ward’s triangle, and lumbar spine than NA (males/females) (P &lt; 0.05). Also, the BMD of FS (except in trochanter and Ward’s triangle) was significantly higher than MS (P &lt; 0.05). Finally, T-scores of FS in lumbar spine and femur neck areas were significantly higher than MS and NA (P &lt; 0.05). Conclusions: Unexpectedly, BMD relatively improved by performing competitive swimming. Meanwhile, FS, especially in the femur neck, seemed more adaptable to swimming-related loads and BMD acquisition in comparison to MS. Further studies are needed to determine the definitive response to bone acquisition by sex, given the limitations of the present study.

Sport dependent effects on the sensory control of balance during upright posture: a comparison between professional horseback riders, judokas and non-athletes.

Compared to judokas (JU) and non-athletes (NA), horseback riders (HR) may develop specific changes in their sensory control of balance. Thirty-four international-level JU, twenty-seven international-level HR and twenty-one NA participated. Participants stood upright on a plateform (static condition) or on a seesaw device with an instability along the mediolateral (ML) or the anteroposterior (AP) direction (dynamic conditions). These conditions were carried out with eyes opened (EO) or closed (EC), and with (wF) or without a foam (nF). Experimental variables included conventional (linear), non-linear center-of-pressure (COP) parameters, Romberg Quotient (RQ) and Plantar Quotient (PQ). Group effects. COP Surface (COPS) and standard deviation of COP along AP (SDY) were lower in HR than in JU in Static. SD Y was lower in HR than in JU in Dynamic AP. COP velocity (COPV) was lower in both HR and JU than in NA in Static and Dynamic. Sample entropy along AP and ML (SampEnY and SampEnX) were higher in HR than in JU in Static. SampEnY was higher in HR than in JU in Dynamic ML. Sensory effects. In EC, COPV was lower in JU than in NA in Dynamic AP, and lower in JU than in both HR and NA in Dynamic ML. In EO, COPV was lower in both JU and HR than in NA in Dynamic ML. RQ applied to COPS was lower in JU than in both HR and NA in Dynamic AP, and lower in JU than in HR in Dynamic ML. RQ applied to COPV was lower in JU than in both HR and NA in Static and Dynamic. PQ applied to COPS was higher in JU than in both HR and NA in Dynamic ML. Results showed that the effects of sport expertise on postural control could only be revealed with specific COP variables and were directionally oriented and sport-dependant. HR seem to rely more on vision than JU, thus revealing that the contribution of the sensory inputs to balance control is also sport-dependent. Results open up new knowledge on the specificity of sport practice on multisensory balance information during upright posture.

Bone bending strength and BMD of female athletes in volleyball, soccer, and long-distance running.

The purpose of the study was to determine whether sports training comprised of (1) high-impact loading sport in volleyball (VOL), (2) odd impact loading sport in soccer (SOC), and (3) low impact sport in distance running (RUN) were associated with tibial bending strength and calcaneus bone mineral density (BMD), and ulnar bending strength and wrist BMD. Female athletes comprised of 13 VOL, 22 SOC, and 22 RUN participated in the study. Twenty-three female non-athletes (NA) served as the comparison group. Tibial and ulnar bending strength (EI, Nm2) were assessed using a mechanical response tissue analyzer (MRTA). Calcaneus and wrist BMD were assessed using a peripheral X-ray absorptiometry. Group means differences among the study groups were determined using ANCOVA with age, weight, height, percent body fat, ethnicity/race, and training history serving as covariates. Tibial EI of VOL (228.3 ± 138Nm2) and SOC (208.6 ± 115Nm2) were greater (p < 0.05) compared to NA (101.2 ± 42Nm2). Ulnar EI of SOC (54.9 ± 51Nm2) was higher (p < 0.05) than NA (27.2 ± 9Nm2). Calcaneus BMD of VOL (0.618 ± 0.12g/cm2), SOC (0.621 ± 0.009g/cm2), and RUN (0.572 ± 0.007g/cm2) were higher (p < 0.05) than NA (0.501 ± 0.08g/cm2), but not different between athletic groups. Wrist BMD of VOL (0.484 ± .06g/cm2) and SOC (0.480 ± 0.06g/cm2) were higher (p < 0.05) than NA (0.443 ± 0.04g/cm2). Female VOL athletes exhibit greater tibial bending strength than RUN and NA, but not greater than SOC. Female SOC athletes exhibit greater ulnar bending strength and wrist BMD than NA.

Association of Osteogenic Adaptation and Sport Training in Distance Running, Soccer and Volleyball

Purpose: The purpose of the study was to determine whether sports training comprising of 1) high-impact loading sport in volleyball (VOL), 2) odd impact loading sport in soccer (SOC), and 3) low impact sport in distance running (RUN) were associated with weight bearing tibial bending strength and calcaneus BMD, and non-weight bearing ulnar bending strength and distal radius and ulna (wrist) BMD. Method: Female athletes comprised of 13 VOL, 22 SOC and 22 RUN participated in the study. A group of 23 non-athletes (NA) served as the comparison group. Tibial and ulnar bending strength ( EI, Nm 2 ) were assessed using a mechanical response tissue analyzer (MRTA). Calcaneus and wrist BMD were assessed using a peripheral X-ray absorptiometry. Group means differences among the study groups were determined using ANCOVA with weight, height, body mass index, ethnicity/race, and training history serving as covariates, and Tukey post-hoc test to determine the sources of the difference. Results: Tibial EI of VOL (228.3 ±138 Nm 2 ) and SOC (208.6 ±115 Nm 2 ) were higher (p &lt; 0.05) than NA (101.2 ± 42 Nm 2 ), but not RUN (144 ± 110 Nm 2 ). Ulnar EI of VOL, SOC and RUN (43.6 ± 17, 54.9 ± 51, 33.6 ± 15 Nm 2 , respectively) were higher (p &lt; 0.05) than NA (27.2 ± 9 Nm 2 ), not among the athletic groups. Calcaneus BMD of VOL (.618 ± .0.12 g/cm 2 ), SOC (.621 ± .009 g/cm 2 ), and RUN (.572 ± .007 g/cm 2 ) were higher (p&lt;0.05) than NA (.501 ± .08 g/cm 2 ), not among the athletic groups. Wrist BMD of VOL (.484 ± .06 g/cm 2 ) and SOC (.480 ± .06 g/cm 2 ) were higher (p &lt; 0.05) than NA (.443 ± .04 g/cm 2 ). Conclusion: The most effective mode of musculoskeletal loading activity for developing tibial bending strength and calcaneus and wrist BMD is from VOL and SOC training. This is the full abstract presented at the American Physiology Summit 2023 meeting and is only available in HTML format. There are no additional versions or additional content available for this abstract. Physiology was not involved in the peer review process.

Bone Mineral Density and Content among Iranian Elite Male Athletes in Different Sports.

Sport is one of the best ways to prevent osteoporosis; however, not all sports have the same impact on bones, for instance, swimming (SW) may have no effect or be harmful. Elite athletes are the best choice to detect the effects of any sport. Thus, this study was conducted firstly to compare the bone mineral density (BMD) and bone mineral content (BMC) of elite athletes in volleyball (VB), basketball (BB), and long-distance running (LR) together, and secondly to compare those corresponding values in SW athletes with those of non-athletes (NA). The subjects (n=58) of this cross-sectional study included elite male athletes (members of Iran's national teams, with a minimum of 12-15 hours of training per week) and NA (control; C) who were divided into BB, VB, LR, SW (n=12 for each), and C (n=10) groups. The DEXA scan measured the amount of BMD and BMC values in the lumbar spine (LS; L2-L4) and proximal femur (PF; neck, trochanter, and Ward's triangle) areas. In the LS areas, LR had significantly higher BMD than the BB, VB, SW, and C groups (P<0.001), while for BMC, both LR and VB were significantly superior to other groups (P<0.001). Moreover, the BMD and BMC of the PF areas of VB and BB were significantly higher than those of the LR, SW, and C groups (P<0.001). Finally, in all areas, SW showed significantly higher BMD and BMC, compared to the C group (except for trochanter and femur neck BMC) (P<0.05). LR athletes showed the most bone acquisition in the LS areas and VB players in the PF areas, while BB players ranked third in osteoporosis prevention in the mentioned regions. Unexpectedly, SW athletes also had better BMD and BMC than NA; therefore, after weight-bearing sports, this type of sport can be effective in bone acquisition.

Variations of explosive strength for the students of the faculty of physical education and sports depending on the type of sports activities

Explosive strength has a decisive role in the rapid execution of movements and in achieving sports performance. The purpose of the study is to identify the differences in the level of explosive force for the upper and lower body, depending on the involvement in curricular physical activities, leisure physical activities or physical efforts in various sports disciplines. The participants are students of the Faculty of Physical Education and Sport/bachelor’s degree: 147 men (age = 20.82 years old). The study was based on a transversal research, with the division of students into 3 distinct investigation groups (as an independent variable), according to sports majors: IS (individual sports), TSG (team sports games) and NA (non-athletes). 7 lower body explosive force evaluation tests and 6 upper body explosive force evaluation tests were applied. The use of ANOVA/Analysis of variance and the comparison on pairs of sports specializations indicate statistically significant differences for most of the tests, between the TSG and NA, respectively IS and NA groups, with the superiority of the athletes. No significant differences are reported between the TSG and IS groups, with 2 exceptions: in the 30s-Plyometric Push-Ups the IS group has significantly better values, respectively in the 30s-lateral hop for the TSG group (p ≤ 0.05). The results of our study are in line with the average performance values provided by other research in the field (although they are weaker than those of elite athletes). The superiority of the individual values of volleyball players and sprinters/Track and field for the power of the lower body, respectively of combat sports practitioners and practitioners of sports games—which use the muscle groups of the trunk and arms in training—for the power of the upper body is confirmed, so the specificity of the effort also influences the explosive force values.

Gene variants previously associated with reduced soft tissue injury risk: Part 1 – independent associations with elite status in rugby

ABSTRACT There is growing evidence of genetic contributions to tendon and ligament pathologies. Given the high incidence and severity of tendon and ligament injuries in elite rugby, we studied whether 13 gene polymorphisms previously associated with tendon/ligament injury were associated with elite athlete status. Participants from the RugbyGene project were 663 elite Caucasian male rugby athletes (RA) (mean (standard deviation) height 1.85 (0.07) m, mass 101 (12) kg, age 29 (7) yr), including 558 rugby union athletes (RU) and 105 rugby league athletes. Non-athletes (NA) were 909 Caucasian men and women (56% female; height 1.70 (0.10) m, mass 72 (13) kg, age 41 (23) yr). Genotypes were determined using TaqMan probes and groups compared using Χ2 and odds ratio (OR). COLGALT1 rs8090 AA genotype was more frequent in RA (27%) than NA (23%; P = 0.006). COL3A1 rs1800255 A allele was more frequent in RA (26%) than NA (23%) due to a greater frequency of GA genotype (39% vs 33%). For MIR608 rs4919510, RA had 1.7 times the odds of carrying the CC genotype compared to NA. MMP3 rs591058 TT genotype was less common in RA (25.1%) than NA (31.2%; P < 0.04). For NID1 rs4660148, RA had 1.6 times the odds of carrying the TT genotype compared to NA. It appears that elite rugby athletes have an inherited advantage that contributes to their elite status, possibly via resistance to soft tissue injury. These data may, in future, assist personalised management of injury risk amongst athletes. Highlights The elite rugby athletes we studied had differing genetic characteristics to non-athletes regarding genetic variants previously associated with soft-tissue injury risk. COLGALT1 rs8090, COL3A1 rs1800255, MIR608 rs4919510, MMP3 rs591058 and NID1 rs4660148 were all associated with elite status in rugby. We propose that elite rugby athletes might possess an inherited resistance to soft tissue injury, which has enabled them to achieve elite status despite exposure to the high-risk environment of elite rugby.

Comparing Midterm Outcomes of High-Level Athletes Versus Nonathletes Undergoing Primary Hip Arthroscopy: A Propensity-Matched Comparison With Minimum 5-Year Follow-up

Background: High-level athletes (HLAs) have been shown to have better short-term outcomes than nonathletes (NAs) after hip arthroscopy. Purpose: (1) To report midterm outcomes of HLAs after primary hip arthroscopy and (2) to compare their results with a propensity-matched cohort of NA patients. Study Design: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods: Data were prospectively collected and retrospectively reviewed between February 2008 and November 2015 for HLAs (professional, college, or high school) who underwent primary hip arthroscopy in the setting of femoroacetabular impingement syndrome (FAIS). HLAs were included if they had preoperative, minimum 2-year, and minimum 5-year follow-up data for the modified Harris Hip Score (mHHS), Non-Arthritic Hip Score (NAHS), and Hip Outcome Score Sports-Specific Subscale (HOS-SSS). Radiographic and intraoperative findings, surgical procedures, patient-reported outcomes (PROs), patient acceptable symptomatic state (PASS), minimal clinically important difference (MCID), and return to sport were reported. The HLA study group was propensity-matched to a control group of NA patients for comparison. Results: A total 65 HLA patients (67 hips) were included in the final analysis with mean follow-up time of 74.6 ± 16.7 months. HLAs showed significant improvement in all PROs recorded, achieved high rates of MCID and PASS for mHHS (74.6% and 79.4%, respectively) and HOS-SSS (67.7% and 66.1%, respectively), and returned to sport at high rates (80.4%). When compared with the propensity-matched NA control group, HLAs reported higher baseline but comparable postoperative scores for the mHHS and NAHS. HLA patients achieved MCID and PASS for mHHS at similar rates as NA patients, but the HLA patients achieved PASS for HOS-SSS at higher rates that trended toward statistical significance (66.1% vs 48.4%; P = .07). NA patients underwent revision arthroscopic surgery at similar rates as HLA patients (14.9% vs 9.0%, respectively; P = .424). Conclusion: Primary hip arthroscopy results in favorable midterm outcomes in HLAs. When compared with a propensity-matched NA control group, HLAs demonstrated a tendency toward higher rates of achieving PASS for HOS-SSS but similar arthroscopic revision rates at minimum 5-year follow-up.

Brain Structural And Functional Connectivity In Roller Derby Athletes

Sport participation can have immense health benefits. However, mechanical loading of the head that is common in contact and collision sports could change brain structure and function in a way that accelerates the onset of cognitive decline later in life. The generalizability of most research on athlete brain health is limited by a primary focus on collegiate male athletes. PURPOSE: We sought to compare brain connectivity between Women’s Flat Track Roller Derby (RD) athletes and female non-athletes (NA). METHODS: RD athletes (n = 19, 24-41 years old) and NA (n = 14, 20-49 years old) underwent structural, functional, and diffusion-weighted MR imaging. After preprocessing of the functional data, a surface-based cortical parcellation was used to group dense timeseries (32 k ‘greyordinates’ per hemisphere) into 500 areas corresponding to 7 widely studied intrinsic brain networks. Functional connectivity (FC) was estimated by elastic-net regularization of the areal BOLD signals. After diffeomorphic reconstruction of pre-processed diffusion data, fiber tracking was performed until 1 million streamlines had been constructed for each individual. Structural connectivity (SC) was defined as the number of streamlines connecting each pair of 500 cortical areas. Group differences in structural and functional connectivity were tested using the network based statistic (5000 permutations) with a primary threshold t > 2.04. In whole-brain networks that were observed to be larger ('intensity') than 95% of the permuted networks, ‘edges’ that passed the initial threshold were averaged within and between 7 intrinsic brain networks. The resulting graphs (7 x 7 networks) were inspected to characterize group differences. RESULTS: RD athletes exhibited a pattern of lower FC (p = .032) and lower SC (p = .046) than NA. The greatest differences in FC were observed within the limbic, ventral attention, and dorsal attention networks. The greatest differences in SC were observed within the visual and frontoparietal networks and between the frontoparietal and attention networks. CONCLUSIONS: Compared to non-athletes, brain structural and functional connectivity was lower in women competing in Roller Derby. Further research is needed to understand the antecedents to and consequences of these patterns.

Effects of CranioSacral therapy upon symptoms of post-acute concussion and Post-Concussion Syndrome: A pilot study

ObjectiveThe purpose of this study was to investigate the utilization of CranioSacral Therapy (CST) in patients with Post-Concussion Syndrome (PCS) and capture patient-reported perceptions of clinical outcomes of lived treatment experiences. DesignTwo-part, longitudinal study conducted through a chart review of target group, followed by a Patient-reported Treatment Outcome Survey (PTOS). ParticipantsA convenience sample of 212 patients with a historical incidence of head trauma not requiring hospitalization was obtained through medical records department dating back ten years. Inclusion criteria for further chart review (n = 67) was determined by identifying patients with a confirmed concussion directly correlated with presenting symptoms and for which CST was specifically sought as a treatment option. Demographics and patient-determined treatment duration data were analyzed by comparison groups extensively suggested in existing literature: Recovery time since injury as either Post-acute concussion (<6 months) or Post-Concussion Syndrome (PCS) (≥6 months); Athletes (A) or Non-athletes (NA); and traditional gender. Final PTOS group criteria was determined by eliminating confounding issues reporting (n = 47): (A, n = 24 and NA, n = 23). ResultsQuantitative data was analyzed via Numerical Analysis, and qualitative data was analyzed via Inductive Content Analysis. Symptoms reported in all charts as well as in the PTOS were consistent with identified PCS subtypes. Utilization of CST revealed that most patients determined the treatment effect upon concussion symptoms within 1–3 sessions. Nearly twice as many sessions were attended in the PCS than post-acute groups. Referral sources, studied for a perspective on local concussion after-care discharge planning, ranged from professional to personal recommendation or self-discovery. A majority of patients met goals of reducing post-acute or PCS as reasons cited by self-determined change-in-status or discharge from service. Patients were asked to indicate on the PTOS which pre- and post-treatment symptoms were helped or not helped by this particular intervention. ConclusionsPatient-reported changes of PCS symptoms is critical when evaluating treatment options. CST is an experiential treatment that addresses subjective levels of dysfunction, thus it is the patient deciding the value of an intervention. A sizable portion of patients in all groups reported a positive effect upon their symptoms by CST. Patients indicated personal meaning to CST through their utilization of multiple sessions. A high percentage indicated the likelihood of referring others with PCS for CST. Of the 212 patient charts first studied, the 145 not meeting inclusion criteria suggest some chronic conditions may present as long-term effects of older head injuries. CST is a low-risk, conservative treatment option for PCS sub-types worthy of further clinical study.

Properties of fast vergence eye movements and horizontal saccades in athletes

Visual information based on eye movements influences sports performance in 3-D space. The purpose of this study was to clarify the properties of fast vergence eye movements and horizontal saccades in athletes. Thirty-four college students were classified into three groups: twelve baseball players (BAS), ten track and field athletes (TRA) and twelve non-athletes (NON). The oculomotor tasks consisted of vergence eye movements (vergence task) including convergence and divergence, and horizontal saccades (saccade task). The participants made a rapid gaze shift toward a visual target. For the vergence task, the target was irradiated at 5 different vergence angles (3, 5, 10, 15, 20°) randomly. For the saccade task, the target was irradiated at 5 different saccade amplitudes (0, ±5, ±10°) randomly. The results showed that the peak eye velocity was higher in order of saccade, convergence, and divergence eye movements. The gain of convergence and saccades was higher than that of divergence. Furthermore, the latency of saccades was shorter than that of convergence and divergence. These results suggest that saccades and convergence are superior compared with divergence, and the dynamic property of convergence is partially analogous to horizontal saccades. The results of the comparison between the three groups showed that the latency of convergence was shorter for BAS than for NON. Therefore, different visual experience and baseball training could influence the gaze-shift dynamics during convergence eye movements.

Diffusion Tensor Imaging in Contact and Non-Contact University-Level Sport Athletes.

Subconcussive hits to the head and physical fitness both have been associated with alterations in white matter (WM) microstructure in partly overlapping areas of the brain. The aim of the present study was to determine whether WM damage associated with repeated exposure to subconcussive hits to the head in university level contact sports athletes is modulated by high levels of fitness. To this end, 72 students were recruited: 24 athletes practicing a varsity contact sport (A-CS), 24 athletes practicing a varsity non-contact sport (A-NCS), and 24 healthy non-athletes (NA). Participants underwent a magnetic resonance imaging session that included diffusion-weighted imaging. Between-groups, statistical analyses were performed with diffusion tensor imaging measures extracted by tractometry of sections of the corpus callosum and the corticospinal tract. Most significant effects were found in A-NCS who exhibited higher fractional anisotropy (FA) values than A-CS in almost all segments of the corpus callosum and in the corticospinal tract. The A-NCS also showed higher FA compared with NA in the anterior regions of the corpus callosum and the corticospinal tracts. No group difference was found between the A-CS and the NA groups. These data suggest that repeated subconcussive hits to the head lead to anisotropic changes in the WM that may counteract the beneficial effects associated with high levels of fitness.

Aerobic Fitness Changes In Trained And Untrained Subjects Following A Three Week Cycling Course

The health and fitness related benefits of endurance training are numerous and well documented. As training progresses, however, the window for training-specific improvement narrows, making continued performance gains challenging. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to compare changes in aerobic fitness between endurance-trained athletes (ET), power-trained athletes (PT), and non-athletes (NON) before and after completing a 3 week college cycling course. It was hypothesized that improvement in aerobic fitness would be greatest for NON and least for ET. METHODS: 19 subjects (12 male, 7 female; mean age 20±0.5 yr.) enrolled in a cycling course at Alma College participated in the study. Participants were categorized into 3 groups (ET, PT, or NON) based on their sport-specific training prior to taking the course. Training for this study consisted of cycling an average of 5 days/week for 18-44 miles/day for 3 weeks, with mileage and course difficulty increasing throughout the training. Participants performed a 5-mile time trial pre- and post-training utilizing a standardized cycle trainer and road bike. Time to completion and average power (Watts) were recorded for each participant and utilized to compare fitness changes among groups. One-way ANOVAs were used to compare the change in time to completion and power pre-to-post training among groups (ET, PT, NON), and paired t-tests were used to compare pre-training to post-training. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in time to completion (p=0.81) or average power (p=0.43) on the 5-mile time trial among groups, although all groups decreased time to completion by 0.98±0.92 minutes (p<0.01) and increased average power by 13.5±20.9 Watts (p=0.01). CONCLUSIONS: An intensive, 3-week cycling training program elicited similar improvements in aerobic fitness in a sample of college students, regardless of prior training status.

Anodal transcranial direct current stimulation reduces motor slowing in athletes and non-athletes

BackgroundMotor fatigability describes a phenomenon that occurs when exhaustive exercise or physically demanding tasks are executed over an extended period of time. Concerning fast repetitive movements, it is noticeable by a reduction in movement speed (motor slowing, MoSlo) and occurs due to both central and peripheral factors. The aim of the present study was to examine the presence of MoSlo during hand- (HTT) and foot-tapping tasks (FTT) comparing trained football (FB) and handball players (HB) and non-athletes (NA). Furthermore, we were interested in how far anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) might be capable of modulating MoSlo as compared to sham.MethodsA total number of 46 participants were enrolled in a sham-controlled, double-blinded, cross-over study. HTT and FTT were performed before, during, after as well as 30 min after 20 min of tDCS over the leg area of the primary motor cortex (M1).ResultsWe could demonstrate that MoSlo during HTT and FTT is a general phenomenon that is observed independent of the type of sports and/or training status. Furthermore, we were able to show a tDCS-induced reduction in MoSlo specifically during FTT in both trained athletes and NA. No such effects could be observed for HTT, indicating local specificity of tDCS-induced effects on a behavioral level.ConclusionWe could demonstrate that tDCS is capable of reducing motor fatigability during fast repetitive movements. These findings are of pivotal interest for many sports where fatigability resistance is a limiting factor in maintaining repetitive movement patterns.

Effects of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation of Primary Motor Cortex on Reaction Time and Tapping Performance: A Comparison Between Athletes and Non-athletes.

Recent studies provided compelling evidence that physical activity leads to specific changes on a functional and structural level of brain organization. The observed neural adaptions are specific to the sport and manifested in those brain regions which are associated with neuronal processing of sport-specific skills. Techniques of non-invasive brain stimulation have been shown to induce neuroplastic changes and thereby also facilitate task performance. In the present study, we investigated the influence of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the leg area of the primary motor cortex (M1) on simple reaction time tasks (RTT) and tapping tasks (TT) as a comparison between trained football (FB) and handball players (HB) and non-athletes (NA). We hypothesized that anodal tDCS over M1 (leg area) would lead to specific behavioral gains in RTT and TT performance of the lower extremity as compared to sham condition. On an exploratory level, we aimed at revealing if trained athletes would show stronger tDCS-induced behavioral gains as compared to NA, and, furthermore, if there are any differential effects between FB and HB. A total number of 46 participants were enrolled in a sham-controlled, double-blinded, cross-over study. A test block consisting of RTT and TT was performed before, during, after as well as 30 min after a 20-min tDCS application. Additionally, the specificity of tDCS-induced changes was examined by testing upper extremity using the same experimental design as a control condition. Our data showed no group- or sport-specific tDCS-induced effects (online and offline) on RTT and TT neither for lower nor upper extremities. These findings indicate that neither athletes nor NA seems to benefit from a brief period of tDCS application in speed-related motor tasks. However, more knowledge on neuronal processing of RTT and TT performance in trained athletes, the influence of tDCS parameters including stimulation sites, and the effect of inter-individual differences are required in order to draw a comprehensive picture of whether tDCS can help to enhance motor abilities on a high-performance level.