Nitrite Scavenging Ability Research Articles

Optimization of the ultrasonic-assisted enzymatic extraction of polysaccharides from Dendrobium offcinale Kimura et Migo and bioactivity study

ABSTRACT Ultrasonic-assisted enzymatic extraction (UAEE) technology was employed to extract the polysaccharides from Dendrobium offcinale Kimura et Migo (D. offcinale). The extraction conditions were optimized by central composite design (CCD) found in the response surface methodology (RSM). The polysaccharide yield (34.05 ± 1.03%) was well matched with the predicted value, as obtained under the optimum parameters: enzyme activity of 2040 U/g, a liquid-solid ratio of 71 mL/g, and a time of 84 min. Compared to other extraction methods, UAEE was able to yield D. offcinale polysaccharide (DOP) highly efficiently in a shorter extraction time period and at a lower extraction temperature. The extracted polysaccharide (DOPUAEE) showcased a better nitrite scavenging ability, a high antioxidant activity, and more potency in inhibiting α-glucosidase, expanding its versatility in food applications.

Antioxidant, DNA damage protective, antibacterial activities and nitrite scavenging ability of essential oil of Amomum kravanh from China

Chemical composition, in vitro antioxidant, DNA damage protective, nitrite scavenging activities, as well as antibacterial activity of Amomum kravanh fruits essential oil against several foodborne pathogens, were investigated. Results showed that the 1,8-cineole (58.53%) was found as the main component, followed by α-pinene (8.32%), α-terpinyl acetate (4.68%), α-terpinolene (4.12%), α-terpinene (3.55%), β-pinene (3.49%). The essential oil had significant antioxidant activity, the protective effect against DNA damage, and nitrite scavenging activity. These biological activities were dose-dependent, increasing with the higher dosage in a certain concentration range. The essential oil exhibited antibacterial activity against four foodborne pathogens with the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 5–10 mg/mL and minimum bactericide concentration (MBC) of 10–20 mg/mL. The antibacterial effects of essential oil were greater against Gram-positive bacteria as compared to Gram-negative bacteria. These results suggested that essential oil could be available as a significant natural agent for prevention of food oxidation and spoilage.

Preparation of selected spice microparticles and their potential application as nitrite scavenging agents in cured Tilapia muscle

SummaryThe development of nitrite scavenging agents for application in curing products has attracted much attention. In this work, we developed eight types of spice microparticles (myrcia, aniseed, cinnamon, chili, Sichuan pepper, nutmeg, clove, and cumin) using a high‐speed disintegrator method and explored their potential application as nitrite scavenging agents. The results demonstrate spice microparticles can efficiently reduce nitrite in sodium nitrite solutions (nitrite scavenging percentages: 36–100%) and high nitrite Tilapia muscle models (nitrite scavenging percentages: 11–42%). Moreover, the nitrite scavenging ability is dependent on spice types and spice microparticle sizes. These results suggest spice microparticles have another potential role (nitrite scavenging) besides flavor adding when they are applied in the curing process of fish and meat. This work can potentially expand the application of spice microparticles in food industry and provide useful information to understand the role of spice microparticles in cured fish, seafood and meats.

표준화된 고려엉겅퀴 추출물의 아질산염 소거능 및 항염증효과

The purpose of this study was to determine nitrite scavenging activity and the anti-inflammatory effect of Cirsium setidens (C. setidens), which is perennial herb belonging to the Compositae family that is found mainly in Gangwon province, Korea. We studied nitrite scavenging ability, cell viability, nitric oxide production, and inflammatory-related gene expression in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated RAW 264.7 macrophages. Our results indicated that C. setidens extract increased the nitrite scavenging ability in a dose-dependent manner. In order to determine the cytotoxicity and the concentration range of C. setidens extract suitable for treating RAW 264.7 cells, the XTT assay was performed. C. setidens extract did not have any cytotoxic effect at contractions of 50, 100 and 200 μg/mL and the absorbance values were 103.30±9.61, 99,98±12.99 and 101.15±11.49%, respectively. Also, C. setidens extract decreased the nitric oxide production of RAW 264.7 cells in a dose-pendent manner. In order to determine whether C. setidens extract inhibits inflammation-related factors, such as COX-2, iNOS, IL-6 and TNF-α. In RAW 264.7 cells treated with C. setidens extract, COX-2, iNOS, IL-6 and TNF-α levels were decreased to 55, 84, 83 and 77%, respectively. Based on these results, C. setidens was revealed to have anti-inflammatory effect to be potentially material in functional food.

A Study on the Physicochemical Properties and the Nitrite Scavenging Ability of Japanese Sumac Extracts

A Study on the Physicochemical Properties and the Nitrite Scavenging Ability of Japanese Sumac Extracts

비타민나무 잎 및 열매의 영양성분과 추출물의 항산화 활성

Nutritional components and antioxidant activities of sea buckthron (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) leaf and berry extracts were evaluated. The fructose contents of leaves (6.64 g/100 g) and berries (2.92 g/100 g) were higher than those of other free sugars, such as glucose, and sucrose. Organic acids (malic acid, lactic acid, acetic acid) were detected, with malic acid (118.06 mg/g) being most abundant. Nine fatty acids were detected, with linolenic acid (42.38%) being most abundant. The total phenol contents of leaves extracted with water, 50% ethanol, and 80% ethanol were 133.09 mg/g, 146.18 mg/g, and 155.09 mg/g, respectively. Therefore, extractions with ethanol were more effective than those with water. Moreover, the total flavonoid content of leaves (32.39 mg/g) extracted by 50% ethanol was higher than that of the other extracts. The order of nitrite-scavenging abilities at pH 1.2 was ascorbic acid (92.62%)>50% ethanol (93.07%)>80% ethanol (90.66%)>water (84.34%). Electron donating ability was highest for leaves (87.62 mg/mL) extracted with 50% ethanol. Overall, the results of this study suggest that sea buckthron has nutritional effects and antioxidant activities, making it a great potential functional food.

추출온도에 따른 이팝나무 과육 물 추출물의 항산화 및 항노화 활성

The fringe tree, Chionanthus retusus (Oleaceae) has been used as a natural remedy that helps a paralytic stroke, dementia, phlegm and malaria. This study was conducted to investigate the antioxidant and anti-aging activities of water extracts obtained from the flesh of C. retusus by reflux extraction at room temperature and 80°C, and pressure heating extraction at 110°C, for an increment of their practical use. The highest extraction yield from the flesh of C. retusus was 67.94% extract by pressure heating extraction at 110°C. The content of total polyphenol compounds was the highest by 72.71 mg/g in 80°C extract by reflux extraction. The highest content of total flavonoid compounds was 7.60 mg/g at 110°C extract. The results of soluble protein and reducing sugar contents showed the highest content of 4.93 mg/g and 46.77 mg/g in 110°C extract, respectively. In the analysis of DPPH radical scavenging activity, all extracts showed an excellent effect of 92% in 1.0 mg/mL concentration. The highest effect of ABTS radical scavenging activity was 88.67% at 110°C extraction in 1.0 mg/mL concentration. Nitrite scavenging ability was the highest as 66.16% at 110°C extract at pH 1.2 and 1.0 mg/mL concentration. The results of SOD-like activity and xanthine oxidase inhibition activities showed the highest effect of 14.95% and 59.45% at 110°C extract in 1.0 mg/mL, respectively. Tyrosinase inhibition activity for whitening effect was the highest of 35.31% at 85°C in 1.0 mg/mL. In the analysis of anti-aging effect, collagenase and elastase inhibition activity showed the highest effects of 37.78% at 110°C and 20.39% at 80°C, respectively. All results of antioxidant activities and anti-aging effects increased along with the concentration increases. These results indicated that the extracts extracted from the flesh of C. retusus at 80°C and 110°C have a large amount of useful ingredients, an excellent antioxidant activity, like as DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activity, and anti-aging effects to develop functional products than those of 25°C.

추출방법을 달리한 곰취(Ligularia fischeri) 추출물의 항산화 및 생리활성에 관한 연구

The purpose of this study was to determine antioxidant and physiological activities of water and 70% ethanol extracts from Ligularia fischeri by extraction methods. The yield of water and ethanol extracts from Ligularia fischeri was 15.23% and 17.45%, respectively. The polyphenol and flavonoid contents of ethanol extracts of Ligularia fischeri (LEE) were 17.17±4.38 mg/g, 35.06±6.69 mg/g, respectively. The electron donating ability and SOD like activity, and ABTS radical ability of all Ligularia fischeri extracts were increased in a dose dependent manner, and those was the highest in LEE. Nitrite scavenging ability was higher in pH 1.2 than that in pH 3.0, and ethanol extract showed higher ability in pH 1.2 and 3.0. The xanthine oxidase and inhibition effect of all Ligularia fischeri extracts on tyrosinase were dose-dependently increased, and those was the highest in ethanol extracts of Ligularia fischeri. Reducing power was 1.2 at extract concentration 1,000 μg/mL in water and ethanol extracts of Ligularia fischeri and the highest in water extract of Ligularia fischeri at concentration of 62.5-500 μg/mL. These results may contribute to development of processed food and health functional food with Ligularia fischeri.

Inhibitory effects on N-nitrosodimethylamine formation by decrease of salted-fermented fish products and increase of condiments in kimchi.

Ethanol extracts from developed kimchi condiments (KME, KMEE) and mixtures of sub-ingredients (ME, MEE) showed high nitrite scavenging activity. ME was able to scavenge 89% of total nitrite at 50mg/mL ME and pH 1.2. The nitrite scavenging abilities of KME and KMEE were significantly higher than in ethanol extract from the control condiment. The inhibitory effects on N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) formation by decrease of salted-fermented fish products (Jeot-gal) and increase of condiments in the composition of kimchi were investigated. The modified kimchi (KM) was prepared with new condiments, which included new sub-ingredients and reduced Jeot-gal. The NDMA and its precursor levels were significantly decreased in KM compared with those in the control kimchi (KC). The KM also obtained higher sensory scores than KC. Therefore, the increase of sub-ingredients and reduction of Jeot-gal in kimchi would be recommended for production of reduced-NDMA kimchi while maintaining or even enhancing flavor profiles.

Semi-Continuous Fermentation of Onion Vinegar and Its Functional Properties.

For the fermentation of vinegar using onion, acetic acid bacteria and yeast strains with high fermentation ability were screened. Among them, Saccharomyces cerevisiae 1026 was selected as a starter for ethanol production and Acetobacter orientalis MAK88 was selected as a vinegar producer. When the two-stage fermentation of onion vinegar was performed at 28 °C, the titratable acidity reached 4.80% at 24 h of fermentation. When semi-continuous fermentation proceeded to charge-discharge consisting of three cycles, the acetic acid content reached 4.35% at 48 h of fermentation. At this stage, the fermentation efficiency, acetic acid productivity, and specific product formation rate were 76.71%, 17.73 g/(L·d), and 20.58 g/(g·h), respectively. The process in this study significantly reduced the fermentation time and simplified the vinegar production process. The content of total flavonoids and total polyphenols in onion vinegar were 104.36 and 455.41 μg/mL, respectively. The antioxidant activities of onion vinegar in terms of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity, 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic) acid (ABTS+) radical scavenging activity, and reducing power were 75.33%, 98.88%, and 1.28, respectively. The nitrite scavenging abilities of onion vinegar were 95.38 at pH 1.2. The onion vinegar produced in this study showed higher organoleptic acceptability than commercial onion vinegar.

증숙 황정 물 추출물의 항산화 활성

Objectives : The objective of this study is to evaluate antioxidant activity of water extracts from steamed Polygonati Rhizoma(PR). Methods : The alcohol steamed PR from Jinju-si, Gyeongsangnam-do and Samcheok-si Gangwon-do are treated for the research into the antioxidant activity of the water extract. The sample was divided into 4 groups that PR without steaming process, PR with once, second and third steaming process. The antioxidant activities of polyphenol, flavonoid, DPPH, SOD, hydroxyl radical and nitrite scavenging activity. Results : The total content of polyphenol was the grow rapidly when the number of steaming adds up. For the third time, both the steamed PR from Jinju-si and the one from Samcheok-si in the water extract indicate the highest content levels measured <TEX>$50.59\;mg/m{\ell}$</TEX> and <TEX>$37.33\;mg/m{\ell}$</TEX> respectively. The more the number of steaming increases, the more rising the content of flavonoid. The steamed PR from Jinju-si and Samcheok-si in the third time are measured <TEX>$30.03\;mg/m{\ell}$</TEX> and <TEX>$54.9\;mg/m{\ell}$</TEX> respectively. DPPH radical scavenging activity of the steamed PR rises high rather than the non-steamed one when the number of steaming increases. As increase steaming time, SOD like activity and hydroxyl radical scavenging ability were increasing too. The steamed PR from Jinju-si in the third time is measured as the highest level 22.4%, 71.90% respectively. As increase steaming time, nitrite scavenging ability was the number was decreased. Conclusions : These results suggest that water extracts from steamed PR, exhibited higher antioxidant activities can be potentially used as proper natural antioxidants.

쉽싸리 부위별 물추출물의 항산화 활성

Objectives : This study was performed to investigate the antioxidant activity of water extracts from Lycopus lucidus Turcz. ex Benth. leaves, stems and roots at the <TEX>$100{\mu}g/m{\ell}$</TEX> concentration. Methods : The different part of Lycopus lucidus Turcz. ex Benth. extract was prepared using water. The antioxidant activities of polyphenol contents, total flavonoid contents, DPPH(1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) free-radical scavenging activity, SOD like activity, hydroxyl radical, ABTS(2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), <TEX>$Fe^{2+}$</TEX> chelating, and nitrite scavenging activity. Results : The total polyphenol and total flavonoid content of leaves were the highest at <TEX>$221.85{\mu}g/mg$</TEX> and <TEX>$794.13{\mu}g/mg$</TEX>, respectively. Electron donating ability was the 79.68% in the water extract from leaves. The ABTS radical scavenging activity of the hot extracts, leaves <TEX>${\gg}$</TEX> roots > stems was higher in the order. It was shown the highest at 94.53% in the water extract from leaves, which showed a value equal to 94.7% of ascorbic acid. The hydroxyl radical scavenging activity was the highest at 8.07% in the water extract from leaves. SOD like activity and <TEX>$Fe^{2+}$</TEX>chelating activity were leaves of 12.3% and 27%, respectively, which were much higher than those of any other parts. The nitrite scavenging ability of extracts was increased at pH 2.5, and those was the highest in leaves of 83.03%. Its were more than twice the 41.61% of BHT. Conclusion : The results suggest that Lycopus lucidus Turcz. ex Benth. can be used as nutraceutical foods and natural antioxidant.

Lactic acid bacteria directly degrade N-nitrosodimethylamine and increase the nitrite-scavenging ability in kimchi

To investigate whether lactic acid bacteria (LAB) play a role in reducing the concentrations of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) and its precursors during kimchi production, experimental kimchi prepared with added Lactobacillus sakei, Lactobacillus curvatus, and Lactobacillus brevis was periodically monitored for 20 days to analyze the concentrations of NDMA, nitrite, dimethylamine (DMA), nitrate, and biogenic amines. LAB species in MRS broth with and without NDMA or NaNO2 were grown and NDMA and nitrite concentrations studied. The amounts of NDMA, nitrite, DMA, nitrate, and biogenic amines remaining in the LAB-fortified kimchi decreased significantly relative to that of the control kimchi. The effects of L. sakei and L. curvatus on the reduction of NDMA concentration in kimchi were higher than that of L. brevis. These LAB species might be indirectly reducing the amounts of NDMA in LAB-fortified kimchi by inhibiting the formation of NDMA precursors originating from kimchi. Interestingly, LAB were found to directly degrade NDMA during culture in MRS broth containing NDMA.

오미자(Schizandra chinensis B.) 추출물의 항산화 효과 및 항균활성 분석

The purposes of this study were to analyze the antioxidative effects and antimicrobial activity of Omija. Total phenol contents of Omija extracted with ethanol and water were 53.4±2.2 tannic acid equivalent/mg, and 47.9±2.1 tannic acid equivalent/mg, respectively. Total flavonoid contents of Omija extracted with ethanol and water were 16.3±1.1 naringin equivalent/mg, and 13.1±1.4 naringin equivalent/mg, respectively. Electron donating ability of ethanol extract (1,000 μg/mL) of Omija was 5.1± 0.4%. This result was lower than the antioxidant vitamin (ascorbic acid: 96.4±0.6%) and artificial antioxidant BHT (70.0± 0.5%). Nitrite-scavenging abilities of Omija were lower than ascorbic acid and BHT. SOD-like activities of Omija extracts, natural antioxidant, and artificial antioxidant at 5 mg/mL were in the other of ascorbic acid (99.0±0.5%) > BHT (72.6±0.5%) > ethanol extract (16.3±0.4%) > water extract (14.4±0.3%). The order of OH radical scavenging activities of Omija extracts and natural antioxidant at 5 mg/mL was ascorbic acid (98.9±0.6%) > tocopherol (85.4±0.6%) > water extract (59.1±0.5%) > ethanol extract (33.1±0.3%). The results show that the antimicrobial effects of Omija could not be detected at both concentrations and extraction methods.

건조 방법에 따른 산사과 추출물의 항산화 및 생리활성

This study was performed to determine the effects of drying methods (HD, hot air drying; FD, freeze-drying) onthe antioxidant and physiological abilities of Haw (Crataegus pinnatifida Bunge). Powder color values of dried Haw, L and b, were higher for HD, while the chroma values were higher for FD. The total polyphenol, and flavonoid contents of HD Haw and FD Haw were found to be 9.29±0.50 mg GAE/mL and 15.48±0.38 mg GAE/mL, and 9.41±0.26 mg RHE/mL and 26.46±0.34 mg RHE/mL, respectively. DPPH radical scavenging abilities at 100 mg/mL concentration were higher for FD (64.90%) than HD (28.66%), as were the reducing power, ABTS radical scavenging ability, and nitrite scavenging ability. However, the HMG-COA reductase of HD (74.67%) was higher than that of FD (72.10%). The α-glucosidase inhibitory abilities of HD and FD at a concentration of 0.1 mg/mL were 24.69% and 97.38%, respectively. These results indicate that Haw is a potential functional material and that freeze-drying Haw is better than hot air drying.

Anti-oxidation and Anti-aging Activity of Three Compositae Species at Different Extraction Temperatures

This study was conducted to determine the antioxidant and anti-aging activities of water-soluble compounds extracted from Inula Flos (IF), Chrysanthemi Flos (CSF) and Carthami Flos (CTF) at 25°C and 80°C. The 80°C CTF extract included soluble protein (386.44 mg/g), reducing sugar (101.27 mg/g), flavonoids (42.70 mg/g), and polyphenols (123.96 mg/g). The DPPH radical scavenging activities of all extracts were over 50% at 0.1 mg/mL; the 25°C CTF extract showed a significantly higher effect than ascorbic acid at 1.0 mg/mL. Xanthine oxidase inhibition, SOD-like activity and tyrosinase inhibition of the 80°C IF extract were 32.14%, 31.54%, and 42.01% at 2.0 mg/mL, respectively. The elastase and collagenase inhibition activities of the IF 80°C extract were 34.67% and 31.40%, respectively. The nitrite scavenging abilities of 25°C IF and CTF extracts along with 80°C CSF and CTF extracts were over 95% (at 2 mL, pH 1.2), even higher than ascorbic acid; and nitrite scavenging ability of the 80°C CTF extract was 87.30% (at 2 mL, pH 3.0), similar to ascorbic acid (87.36%). These results suggest that the 80°C CTF extract contained useful compounds and IF is a potentially useful antioxidant and anti-aging source for the development of functional cosmetics.

The effect of clove bud powder at a spice level on antioxidant and quality properties of emulsified pork sausage during cold storage

Clove bud is a widely used spice in meat and meat products, and it contains high level of phenolic compounds. The effectiveness of the clove as a spice has not been fully studied at a general level of addition in the meat products. Therefore, in the present study, the antioxidant, antimicrobial, and nitrite scavenging abilities of clove bud powder (CBP) was assessed at spice level (0.1% and 0.2%) in emulsified pork sausage, during 6 weeks of cold storage. CBP had DPPH radical scavenging ability, but CBP addition at 0.1% and 0.2% did not decrease the TBARS value. An antimicrobial effect of CBP was also not observed during the cold storage. However, residual nitrite at storage weeks 4 and 6 was shown to be lower (P < 0.05). Addition of CBP decreased CIE L* and a* values, but it produced unacceptable sensory properties. Texture profile analysis was not affected by the addition of CBP in emulsified pork sausage (P > 0.05). The positive effect on nitrite scavenging could be expected by the addition of 0.2% CBP as a spice. However, antioxidant and antimicrobial abilities were not observed, as well as improvement in the quality of characteristics, in emulsified pork sausage. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

박주가리(Metaplexis japonica Makino) 잎과 줄기 추출물의 항산화 효과에 관한 연구

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the antioxidant activity of Metaplexis japonica by using hot-water and ethanol extracts of its leaf and stem. Yields of hot-water and ethanol extracts of M. japonica leaf were high at 6.89 and 6.23%, respectively. The polyphenol and flavonoid contents in ethanol extracts of M. japonica leaf (ALEE) were high (86.96 and 60.73 mg/g, respectively). The electron-donating ability of all M. japonica extracts increased with an increase in extract concentration, with the highest electron-donating ability of 36.20~68.19% shown by hot-water extracts of M. japonica leaf (ALWE). The superoxide dismutase (SOD)-like activities of ALWE and ALEE increased with an increase in extract concentration. The nitrite-scavenging ability of the extracts was the highest at pH 1.2 and that of ALWE was higher than that of ALEE. The reducing power of 62.5 μg/mL ALEE was 0.09 and that of 1,000 μg/mL ALWE was 0.44. The inhibitory effect of an ethanol extract of M. japonica stem (ASEE) on tyrosinase was 13.81% at a concentration of 62.5 μg/mL and that of 1,000 μg/mL ALEE was 57.04%.

열풍건조 온도에 따른 고구마 잎 메탄올 추출물의 항산화 효과

To provide the basic data to dry vegetate the sweetpotato leaves, the total contents of tannin, flavonoid and polyphenol in the methanol extract from the hot- air dried sweetpotato leaves were analyzed and DPPH radical scavenging activity, ABTS radical scavenging ability, nitrite scavenging ability, and others were comparatively analyzed. The total tannin content was decreased from Shinmi of 10.87 mg/g at 40°C to 7.28 mg/g at 70°C and the total flavonoid was decreased from Hayanmi of 55.37 mg/g at 40°C to 39.63 mg/g at 70°C. That is, the low temperature drying contained more of these substances than in the high temperature drying. The DPPH radical scavenging activity was the highest in Shinmi and Hayanmi of 84.33% and 85.25% at 40°C, and the ABTS radical scavenging ability was a high value of over 80% in the treatment plot at 40°C. The nitrite scavenging ability was highest in Shinmi and Hayanmi of 76.15% and 73.74% at 40°C but low at 70°C. That is, the antioxidant effect of the hot-air dried sweetpotato leaves was high in the sample of 40°C and low in the sample of 70°C. Affected by the drying temperature, the high antioxidant effect is resulting from the little decrease of active ingredient when drying at low temperatures.

원목재배와 병재배 잎새버섯(Grifola frondosa)의 생리활성

This research was carried out to determine the differences of physiological activites between Grifola frondosa of log cultivation(LC) and Grifola frondosa of bottle cultivation(BC). Total flavonoids content, total phenolics content, electron donating ability(EDA), nitrite-scavenging ability(NSA), SOD-like activity and inhibitory effect of Xanthine oxidase were examined. The highest value of total flavonoid content is in water extract from Grifola frondosa of log cultivation at (LC-W40) but, one of total phenolics compound is in water extract from Grifola frondosa of bottle cultivation at (BC-W40). The EDA using DPPH of BC-W40 extract showed the highest value of . Nitrite-scavenging ability was in extract from Grifola frondosa of BC-W40 at pH 1.2. The value was SOD-like activity showed the highest value of in extract from LC-W40. Xanthine oxidase inhibitory activity was the highest value of in extract from Grifola frondosa BC-W40, and dependent on concentrations. These results showed that a the antioxidant effects of Grifola frondosa is excellent. However, physiological activities of Grifola frondosa were not depend on caltivation method regulary, and were different according to kind of solvents, concentraitions and physialogical factors examined such as EDA, SOD-like activity and NSA.