Neolithic Period Research Articles

The Origin and Dispersal of Austroasiatic Languages from the Perspectives of Linguistics, Archeology, and Genetics

The Austroasiatic (AA) languages comprise a large language family in mainland Southeast Asia (MSEA) and South Asia. Theoretical, methodological, and material constraints have limited research on the origin and dispersal of AA-speaking populations within historical-comparative linguistics. With the deepening of archaeological and genetic studies, interdisciplinary collaboration has become key to solving this problem. We review the latest hypotheses in linguistics, archaeology, and molecular anthropology and propose insights on the origin and dispersal of AA languages. The ancestors of the AA-speaking populations were suggested to be rice farmers living in the Neolithic Age in southern China. Between 3,000 and 4,500 BP, some of these ancestors who spoke Proto-AA migrated from southern China to northern Vietnam, together with shouldered stone tools and domesticated rice. They mixed with local hunter-gatherers and expanded to the south of MSEA, giving rise to the Mon-Khmer, Aslian, and Nicobarese populations. They also spread to the northeast of India to form the Munda-speaking populations. Another group arrived near Dian Lake in Yunnan about 2,500 BP, where they created the Bronze Drum culture with the Proto- Tai-Kadai (TK)–speaking populations and later spread eastward to northern Vietnam via Guangxi. Finally, the Proto-AA–speaking people who remained in southern China mixed with the Proto-TK–speaking groups from Fujian and Guangdong, leading to a language shift, which we hypothesize was one of the main reasons for the “disappearance” of AA in southern China.

Different trajectories of livelihood transformations in response to the trans-Eurasian exchange in agricultural, pastoral, and agro-pastoral regions of north China during the late Neolithic and Bronze Age

Different trajectories of livelihood transformations in response to the trans-Eurasian exchange in agricultural, pastoral, and agro-pastoral regions of north China during the late Neolithic and Bronze Age

『營造法式』 축성도구 연구

The term ‘Yeongjung Pillar (永定柱)’ is used in Korean archaeology to refer to the wooden pillar used to fix wooden blocks when applying the board frame construction method. This use begun in the mid-80s based on the record of Yingzao Fashi (營造法式). However, the record does not correspond with archaeological data in the sense that the wooden pillar used during board frame construction is not equivalent to the Yeongjung Pillar. This paper therefore analyzes the wooden pillar, the ‘Yeongjung Pillar’ of Yingzao Fashi, and other construction materials. In the case of the wooden pillar, the names that were used to refer to it from ancient times, as well as its different forms, were analyzed, in association with construction method and function. To highlight the mistaken interpretation of Yingzao Fashi, the function of the Yeongjung Pillar and other construction materials were examined. These materials were then classified according to various factors. The results of the analysis demonstrate that there are common elements shared between the wooden pillar and the Yeongjung Pillar of the board frame construction method, but differences could also be observed in terms of in size, position during construction, structure, construction or disassembling method, function, and textual records. These results go against the conception that the wooden pillar of the board frame construction method equals the Yeongjung Pillar; the two are clearly different. Finally, the wooden pillar has sometimes been found in the wall, as it was not disassembled after the board frame construction process. In this case, it functioned as the center of the wall or as a Yeongjung Pillar. The functional similarity of the two may be related to the mid-wall column of the wall of dwellings or structures that emerged in the Neolithic Age. The wooden pillar of the board frame construction method may have been derived from the mid-wall column technique. After the Neolithic Age, the wooden pillar that combined the function of the Yeongjung Pillar disappeared, and the two were separated from each other. The Yeongjung Pillar continually developed after its emergence from the midwall column, and it was expansively applied to wall construction. It became institutionalized as the essential civil engineering technology in castle construction with the compilation of the architecture book Yingzao Fashi of the North Song Dynasty.

Taking the Deer by the Antlers: Deer in Material Culture in the Balkan Neolithic

Prehistoric communities had strong ties with the animal world that surrounded them—animals were prey, sources of food, and raw materials, but also threats and mysteries, and certain animals often had an important place in the symbolic realm. With the process of domestication and the switch to animal husbandry as the main source of animal food, these relations changed considerably, and a certain dichotomy between “the domestic” and “the wild” may be noted in numerous past communities. When it comes to the Neolithic period in the Balkans, domestic animals had an important place in subsistence and economy, and it seems that cattle had a particularly prominent symbolic role. Wild species preserved some of their significance in both subsistence and symbolic realms, especially cervids (red deer, roe deer, and fallow deer). In this paper, the place of deer in the material culture of the Neolithic communities in the Balkans will be analysed: skeletal elements of deer were used for the production of diverse items, including non-utilitarian ones, or were part of ritual depositions, and deer representations are encountered in other materials, such as clay figurines. The symbolic meaning of deer cannot be reconstructed with certainty; however, it is probable that deer were tied with territoriality and the landscape.

Advances and prerequisites for strontium isotope analyses through laser ablation in an aquatic context – Targeting Mid-Neolithic Baltic Sea harp seal (Pagophilus groenlandicus) mobility and breeding grounds

Harp seals (Phoca groenlandicus), once present in the Baltic Sea, now stand extinct. During the Middle Neolithic period, they held significant dietary importance for the Pitted Ware Culture hunter-fisher-gatherers in Scandinavia. Because they are no longer available for ecological studies, little is known about their specific behavioural intricacies, such as diet, mobility, and reproductive strategies. Because of the seal's pivotal role in these human societies and because they provide an interesting ecological case study on post-isolation ecological adaptation to new environmental conditions, a comprehensive investigation into Baltic Sea harp seal behaviour is warranted.In this pursuit, we employ sequential analysis of strontium isotope ratios (87Sr/86Sr) in harp seal teeth sourced from archaeological contexts across three study regions. This data is harmonized with osteometric analyses from fifteen archaeological sites from the Baltic Sea area, establishing a methodological framework for comprehending the Sr isotopic pathway in a brackish water inland sea. By adopting this approach, we unveil breeding and mobility patterns of the long-extinct Baltic Sea harp seals, approximate specific breeding areas connected to each group of seals and delve into the ontogenic temporal frame governing these observed patterns. This endeavour culminates in an enriched understanding of the adaptive behaviours exhibited by Baltic Sea harp seals and equips us with the insights necessary to decipher the lifestyle of the human societies intricately intertwined with them.

Sacred Landscapes and Deep Time: Mobility, Memory, and Monasticism on Crowland

ABSTRACT Excavation of a postulated early Medieval hermitage near Crowland, England, identified a site with a long and complex chronological sequence. During the Neolithic or Early Bronze Age, a monumental henge was built, among the largest so far identified in the Fens of eastern England, probably later adapted into a timber circle. After a period of apparent abandonment, the interior of the henge was reoccupied around the 7th century a.d. and, after further early Medieval phases, was transformed by the abbots of Crowland through construction of a high-status hall and chapel complex in the later 12th century a.d. While no conclusive evidence was found for an early hermitage that local tradition associates with the eremites Guthlac and Pega, Anchor Church Field offers an exceptional case study of an evolving sacred landscape in a deep-time perspective, culminating in its redevelopment by the Anglo-Norman monastery to claim legitimacy from illustrious saintly forebears.

Alteration in Plant-Based Subsistence and Its Influencing Factors from Late Neolithic to Historical Periods in Hexi Corridor, Northwestern China: Archaeobotanical Evidence

The spatio-temporal evolution of human subsistence strategies and their driving force in prehistoric Eurasia has received increasing attention with the rapid development of archaeobotanical, zooarchaeological, and isotopic research in recent decades, while studies focusing on the historical periods are relatively absent. In the Hexi Corridor in northwestern China, which has served as a hub for trans-Eurasian exchange since the late prehistoric period, archaeobotanical data have been reported from numerous Neolithic and Bronze Age sites, as well as sites from the Wei and Jin Dynasties (220–420 BCE) to the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368 BCE). However, no archaeobotanical study has been conducted at sites of the Han Dynasty (202 BCE–220 CE), a crucial period connecting prehistoric and historical eras. In this study, we identified 32475 plant remains, including 31,463 broomcorn millets, 233 foxtail millets, and 780 weeds, from the Shuangdun North Beacon Tower (SDNBT) site of the Han Dynasty at the western end of the Hexi Corridor, suggesting that millets played a prominent part in human subsistence strategies in the area during this period. In addition, sheep, chicken, dog, horse, and rodent remains were also collected at the site. By applying a multi-disciplinary approach, we detected a remarkable change in plant-based subsistence in the ancient Hexi Corridor. Specifically, the importance of millet crops, compared with other crops (especially barley and wheat), in plant-based subsistence declined from the Late Neolithic to the Bronze Age; it apparently improved during the Han and Sui-Tang Dynasties (581–907 CE), when agricultural empires controlled the area, and then declined again during the Wei, Jin, Northern, and Southern Dynasties (220–581 CE) and the Song-Yuan Dynasty (960–1368 CE), when nomadic regimes controlled the area. Climate change, trans-Eurasian exchanges, and geopolitical shifts influenced the diachronic change in plant-based subsistence from the Late Neolithic to the historical periods in the Hexi Corridor.

Age and origin of closed depressions in the Paris Basin: A majority of marl pits dug since the Neolithic period?

Marling (limestone alkaline amendment) agrarian practices have a plurimillennial influence on soil pH and on soil-associated ecosystems. Although the earliest written records in Europe date back to antiquity, the origin of this agrarian practice is not well known. In order to trace the evolution of this practice in the early agrarian societies of Western Europe, we searched for topographic anomalies of ancient limestone quarries that may have been used for marling. Four hundred circular closed topographic depressions (CDs) were identified under two areas of ancient forest in northern France with Lidar digital elevation models (DEMs). Soils, morphology and archaeological context were studied and filling sediments were dated in several dozen CDs.The gaps in the carbonate rocks, soils with calcaric properties (scattered limestone fragments), unstratified fills, the absence of buried paleosols, and dates (OSL, C-14) later than the first local agricultural societies made it possible to recognise the CDs that may have served as limestone quarries. This was the case for most of the 30 CDs studied, leaving a minority of natural origin (suffosion, depressions of thermokarstic origins). Amongst the quarries identified, the preferential excavation of soft (friable) limestone and the location of these quarries in fossil agrarian plots led us to hypothesize that they were used for alkaline amendments of the cultivated fields. The quarries were filled from the Middle Neolithic to Late Antiquity, shortly before the period of afforestation of these former agrarian territories.

Socio-Economic Conditions and Challenges Faced by Pottery Artisan: A Case Study of Haryana and Delhi

India is rich in cultural diversity, where traditional crafts and artistic expressions have flourished for centuries. Artisans have played an essential role in shaping identity and character. The pottery evidence can be traced back to the Neolithic age with the participation of various traditional knowledge. Pottery artisans hold a significant place as their artistic creations signify the culture, tradition, and history of the country. The pottery industries provide various opportunities like employment generation, increasing exports, etc. The study attempted to investigate the present status of the socio-economic conditions of the pottery artisans in Delhi and Haryana. Another objective of the study was to analyse the range of challenges faced by pottery artisans in the study area. The study aimed to provide actionable recommendations that can contribute to the growth, preservation and empowerment of pottery artisans. Primary data were used in the study. Snowball stratified random sampling was used in the study. Various indexes were constructed to identify the key challenges faced. The study showed that the pottery industry was suffering from competition, followed by an irregular supply of raw materials and quality issues. Government and non-government organisations can solve the problem and help grow and develop this particular industry.

Prehistoric and Early Medieval Settlement Features at Ravelrig Road and Newmills Road, Balerno, City of Edinburgh

Evaluation and excavation works in advance of housing development at two sites on Ravelrig Road and Newmills Road, Balerno, City of Edinburgh, revealed significant archaeological features evidencing multi-phase settlement. At Ravelrig Road, two groups of pits were dated to the Early and Middle to Late Neolithic periods with a cluster of Copper Age and Early Bronze Age features that included two possible storage features. At Newmills Road, alongside limited evidence for late prehistoric occupation in the form of pits dating to the last centuries BC and the first centuries AD, the most significant remains were of early medieval date, including a ring-groove representing a putative roundhouse and other features, including a hearth and linear boundary features, generally placed between the 7th and 9th centuries AD according to radiocarbon dating.

Genetic Variation in Relation to Demography of Male Population in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Until recently, it was believed that people settled in the area of today's Bosnia and Herzegovina only a few thousand years ago, that is, in the epoch of the Neolithic period 5-6 thousand years ago. Intensive archeological excavations revealed traces of men who lived in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Early Stone Age, or more precisely, in the Middle Paleolithic. In the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the material legacy of the Paleolithic is marked by the oldest monument of Paleolithic art in Southeast Europe - an engraving in the rock of the cave Badanj near Stolac, called Horse attacked by arrows, preserved fragmentarily, and was made around 12,000 BC. Genetic research revealed that the first people in Bosnia and Herzegovina were present even 20,000 years ago. A total of 2,501 people were tested in Bosnia and Herzegovina, they were classified into eight haplogroups: I, R, J, E, G, N, T and Q. The most common haplogroup in Bosnia and Herzegovina is haplogroup I. 52% of tested people belong to this haplogroup (I1- 8% i I2 - 44%). The second most common is haplogroup R with 21% (R1a-5% and R1b-16%), followed by haplogroups E-13%, J-9% (J1-1% and J2-8%), N-3%, G-2% and haplogroups T (3 tested, 0%) and Q (1 tested, 0%). Four haplogroups: I, R, E and J are represented in Bosnia and Herzegovina with 94%. The movement path of haplogroup I2-M423 begins 230,000 years ago from Africa and goes from Nigeria through Chad, Sudan, Ethiopia, Yemen, Oman, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Turkey, all the way to the Balkan Peninsula. The path ends in the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina about 18,000 years ago. Censuses in Bosnia and Herzegovina are also presented in this work. The oldest population census of Bosnia and Herzegovina dates back to the very beginning of the seventeenth century, and was conducted during the Turkish rule in the Balkan countries, including Bosnia and Herzegovina. The first population census in Bosnia and Herzegovina by the Austro-Hungarian authorities was carried out in 1879. Censuses were made in 1885, 1895 and 1910. In the period 1921-2013 a total of nine censuses were carried out in B&H.

Malou Blank. Mobility, Subsistence and Mortuary Practices. An Interdisciplinary Study of Neolithic and Early Bronze Age Megalithic Populations of Southwestern Sweden

Malou Blank. Mobility, Subsistence and Mortuary Practices. An Interdisciplinary Study of Neolithic and Early Bronze Age Megalithic Populations of Southwestern Sweden

Multiscale and Multitemporal Remote Sensing for Neolithic Settlement Detection and Protection—The Case of Gorjani, Croatia

The decade of research concentrating on the area of Eastern Slavonia revealed an abundance of large and complex Middle and Late Neolithic sites. It changed profoundly how we perceive Middle and Late Neolithic settlements, including space, size and organization. The vast majority of these sites were detected through aerial reconnaissance and satellite image analysis. The observation of the sites was followed by intensive field surveys, which confirmed their attribution to the Middle and Late Neolithic period by surface finds. On those confirmed sites in the vicinity of Đakovo, Croatia, a magnetic survey was conducted on five sites, and the results confirmed the presence of large-scale Middle and Late Neolithic settlements with complex spatial organization and enclosure(s). The most complex remains so far are the sites Gorjani, Kremenjača and Topole, which we present in this paper, where one or two settlements remain covering an area of 70 hectares which is currently in the process of formal protection as a cultural landscape by the Ministry of Culture and Media of the Republic of Croatia. The special focus of this paper is the application of remote sensing in the detection, archaeological confirmation and protection of the site of Gorjani Topole.

GIS-Based Analysis of the Regional Typology of Neolithic Archaeological Cultures in the Taihu Lake Region of China

The study of the evolution of regional typology of archaeological cultures is essential in understanding the trajectory of cultural evolution from a temporal and spatial perspective. In this paper, we focused on the Taihu Lake region, one of the six major regional typologies of Neolithic archaeological cultures in China. By utilizing archaeological site data from the Neolithic Era in this region, our study investigates the evolution of typologies in archaeological cultures at both regional and sub-regional scales. From a broad perspective, quantitative methods were used to explore the cultural evolution process in the Taihu Lake region. The degree of social integration and intercultural inheritance can be reflected through the size of the site and the superimposition of cultural layers. In addition, climate and environmental data were combined to investigate its driving factors. Moreover, GIS (Geographic Information System) analysis methods were used to cluster and partition the cultures in the Taihu Lake region. By identifying distinct groups of sites, it is possible to deconstruct and analyze the interior of the cultures to study their distribution patterns and to explore the exchanges and expansions within the cultures. By integrating both research approaches, our study provides a comprehensive analysis of the evolutionary characteristics of the regional typology of archaeological cultures within the Taihu Lake region. These findings contribute to the development of quantitative methods for studying the evolutionary trajectory of archaeological cultural systems.

Diversification in subsistence pattern of animal resources in the Hengduan Mountains: Multi‐isotopic evidence of Yingpanshan and Guijiabao site (5300–4000 cal. BP), China

AbstractThe Hengduan Mountains are located on the southeastern edge of the Qinghai‐Tibet Plateau, where farmers began to settle 6000 years ago. Animal husbandry plays a significant role in the sustenance economies of agricultural civilizations. It is unclear how Neolithic people acquired animal resources in the Hengduan Mountains. We explore animal geographical origins and feeding practices using the strontium, carbon, and oxygen isotope composition of tooth enamel at the Guijiabao and Yingpanshan sites during the Neolithic Age in the Hengduan Mountains. Multi‐isotopic evidence demonstrates that animals originate from several different regions with diverse foods. Guijiabao domestic dogs and pigs with a mixed C3/C4 diet share a similarly broad dietary spectrum with humans as enclosed animals, but the other pigs are wild boars with a C3 diet, likely free‐range animals or directly captured as meat resources. Yingpanshan dogs and pigs are both domestic animals with a mixed C3/C4 or C4‐based diet, but pigs with different 87Sr/86Sr ratios are likely raised by dispersed feeding modes. The inhabitants had diverse approaches for obtaining animal resources, including husbandry, hunting, and exchange. Diverse animal subsistence patterns are closely related to the complex geographical environment, reflecting the adaptation of farmers living in the high mountain valley regions.

Provenance, technology and possible function of Gáta–Wieselburg vessels from the Trieste Karst (northeastern Italy)

AbstractA few scattered vessels, typologically attributed to the Gáta–Wieselburg culture, are known from the Friuli Venezia Giulia region in northeastern Italy. This culture spread during the Early Bronze Age (Reinecke Br A1b and A2, 2100–1700/1600 bc) in present‐day eastern Austria, western Hungary and southwestern Slovakia. Rare ceramic artefacts, typically biconical double‐handled jugs with well‐burnished surfaces, have been discovered in caves of the Trieste Karst (Ciclami, Tartaruga, Teresiana and Ossa) and the Natisone Valley (Velika jama). This study aims to outline the technology, provenance and probable use of these rare jugs from the Trieste Karst. Two of these vessels from the Ciclami and Tartaruga caves have been investigated using various destructive and non‐destructive techniques, including optical microscopy, X‐ray computed microtomography and prompt‐gamma activation analysis, and chemically compared to contemporaneous vessels from the core region of the Gáta–Wieselburg culture in Hungary (10 vessels specifically analysed for this project) and earlier Neolithic and Copper Age vessels, likely produced locally in the Karst, Slovenia and Hungary. Based on the obtained results, the investigated Karst vessels were imported. Tentative identification of plant and animal lipids using organic residue analysis (i.e., gas chromatography–mass spectrometry) sheds light on their possible function.

Bacteriophage Challenges in Industrial Processes: A Historical Unveiling and Future Outlook.

Humans have used fermentation processes since the Neolithic period, mainly to produce beverages. The turning point occurred in the 1850s, when Louis Pasteur discovered that fermentation resulted from the metabolism of living microorganisms. This discovery led to the fast development of fermented food production. The importance of industrial processes based on fermentation significantly increased. Many branches of industry rely on the metabolisms of bacteria, for example, the dairy industry (cheese, milk, yogurts), pharmaceutical processes (insulin, vaccines, antibiotics), or the production of chemicals (acetone, butanol, acetic acid). These are the mass production processes involving a large financial outlay. That is why it is essential to minimize threats to production. One major threat affecting bacteria-based processes is bacteriophage infections, causing substantial economic losses. The first reported phage infections appeared in the 1930s, and companies still struggle to fight against phages. This review shows the cases of phage infections in industry and the most common methods used to prevent phage infections.

Deciphering the maternal ancestral lineage of Greek Cypriots, Armenian Cypriots and Maronite Cypriots.

Cyprus was conquered from several populations because of its special geographical location. In this study, 406 unrelated Cypriot samples were tested based on their mitochondrial DNA. In more detail, 185 were Greek Cypriots, 114 Armenian Cypriots and 107 Maronite Cypriots. This is the first time where the mitochondrial DNA of Greek Cypriots, Armenian Cypriots and Maronite Cypriots is compared with the aim of characterizing the maternal ancestry of Cypriots. The control region of the mtDNA is the most informative in terms of studying maternal ancestry and consists of three hypervariable regions (HVS-I, HVS-II, HVS-III). The hypervariable regions can provide important information regarding the maternal ancestor of the tested samples. The entire control region of the mtDNA was used to determine the mitotypes and subsequently the haplogroups of all the Cypriot DNA samples. Based on the aforementioned analyses, Greek Cypriots were found to be genetically closer to Armenian Cypriots, while Greek Cypriots and Armenian Cypriots showed moderate genetic differentiation with Maronite Cypriots. The most prevalent haplogroups among Cypriots were haplogroups H and U, while R0 is common but in different frequencies for Greek Cypriots, Armenian Cypriots and Maronite Cypriots. It is proposed that the maternal ancestor may have originated during the Neolithic period and/or the Bronze age.

Evolutionary Trends of Polygenic Scores in European Populations From the Paleolithic to Modern Times.

This study examines the temporal and geographical evolution of polygenic scores (PGSs) across cognitive measures (Educational Attainment [EA], Intelligence Quotient [IQ]), Socioeconomic Status (SES), and psychiatric conditions (Autism Spectrum Disorder [ASD], schizophrenia [SCZ]) in various populations. Our findings indicate positive directional selection for EA, IQ, and SES traits over the past 12,000 years. Schizophrenia and autism, while similar, showed different temporal patterns, aligning with theories suggesting they are psychological opposites. We observed a decline in PGS for neuroticism and depression, likely due to their genetic correlations and pleiotropic effects on intelligence. Significant PGS shifts from the Upper Paleolithic to the Neolithic periods suggest lifestyle and cognitive demand changes, particularly during the Neolithic Revolution. The study supports a mild hypothesis of Gregory Clark's model, showing a noticeable rise in genetic propensities for intelligence, academic achievement and professional status across Europe from the Middle Ages to the present. While latitude strongly influenced height, its impact on schizophrenia and autism was smaller and varied. Contrary to the cold winters theory, the study found no significant correlation between latitude and intelligence.

Cultivation and morphology of jujube (Ziziphus Jujuba Mill.) in the Qi River Basin of Northern China during the Neolithic Period

This transition from gathering to cultivation is a significant aspect of studying early agricultural practices. Fruit trees are an essential component of food resources and have played a vital role in both ancient and modern agricultural production systems. The jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.), with its long history of cultivation in northern China, holds great importance in uncovering the diet of prehistoric humans and understanding the origins of Chinese agricultural civilization. This paper focuses on the domestication of jujube by analyzing the morphology of jujube stones found in three Neolithic sites in northern China's Qi River basin, Zhujia, Wangzhuang, and Dalaidian. The measurements of these jujube kernels are compared with those found in other areas of northern China, as well as modern jujube kernels that were collected. The measurements revealed that the length-to-diameter (L/D) ratio of sour jujube kernels ranged from 1.36 to 1.78, whereas the L/D ratio of cultivated jujube stones varied between 1.96 and 4.23. Furthermore, jujube stones obtained from Zhujia and Wangzhuang sites exhibit pointed ends and possess an elongated oval or narrow oval shape overall, which is indicative of clearly artificial domestication traits. Therefore, this study suggests that jujube was selected and cultivated as an important food supplement in the Qi River basin no later than around 6200 BP.