Negotiation Behavior Research Articles

A simulation model of negotiations on affordable housing provision

ABSTRACT In several planning systems, the provision of affordable housing is negotiated between local authorities and private developers. Those negotiations are not often accessible to students and researchers for understanding and analysis. This article presents a multi-agent simulation model of the negotiations on affordable housing in England. The model is designed to help students and researchers generate hypotheses about the impact of housing markets, local policies and negotiation behaviors on the negotiation outcomes, and consequently, the provision of affordable housing. We conducted a thought experiment using the model. To demonstrate reliability, we compared the outputs against overall trends of affordable housing provisions in England and a previous empirical study of simple negotiations. The results helped in generating four hypotheses. Among them, interestingly, the model hypothesized that there is a range of possible outcomes for each housing market, and negotiation skills can only cause variations within that range. The experiment demonstrated the model’s applicability as a tool for generating hypotheses which can open doors for future exploration, hence supporting housing education and research.

Communication media in electronic negotiations: how the individual x medium fit influences negotiation behaviors and outcomes

Communication media in electronic negotiations: how the individual x medium fit influences negotiation behaviors and outcomes

Empowered or informed? Seeking to mitigate gender differences in first-offer assertiveness through pre-negotiation interventions

Gender differences in negotiation behavior—for instance, men’s vs. women’s likelihood to make (assertive) first offers—contribute to the globally prevalent gender pay gap (GPG). In an attempt to mitigate the social and economic consequences of this gender disparity, we first empirically validated two pre-negotiation message interventions in a pilot study (N = 203). In the main experimental intervention study (N = 585), male versus female participants randomly received this (1) informative message about the GPG, or (2) gender-specific empowering message, or (3) no message in the control condition. In a subsequent negotiation task on the starting salary for a new job, we assessed participants’ (a) likelihood-to-initiate a first offer and (b) first-offer assertiveness. Results showed a remarkably robust behavioral gender disparity: across all conditions, men were more likely to make the first offer (d = 0.178) and made them more assertively (d = 0.339). Importantly, compared to the control condition, the informative (dinform = 0.304) and the empowering (dempower = 0.255) pre-negotiation interventions increased women’s first-offer assertiveness. Similar intervention benefits emerged for men (dinform = 0.259; dempower = 0.284), however, yielding an overall remarkably robust gender difference. To explore the underlying reasons for this gender disparity, we tested four competing psychological mechanisms (i.e., self-esteem, positive and negative affect, GPG awareness, and self-efficacy). Our results highlight the impact that even short, minimal interventions can have on gender differences in negotiation behavior and illustrate which psychological mechanisms explain the emergence of gender disparity in the first place.

Gender and Professional Identities in Businesswomen's Negotiation.

Gender roles and expectations for women have been shown to account for why women tend to negotiate ineffectively in business settings. Drawing from the psychological literature on multiple identities, this paper examines how individual differences in perceived compatibility between gender and professional identities-captured by the construct Gender-Professional Identity Integration (G-PII)-shape businesswomen's negotiation behaviors. Two studies examined how G-PII interacts with identity cues and cue valence to influence negotiation outcomes. We found that those who perceived their gender and professional identities as compatible (high G-PII) exhibited an "assimilation" effect-they negotiate more effectively when their professional identity was primed by professional identity cues and when prototypical female traits were positively linked to negotiation success, and negotiated less effectively when their gender identity was primed by gender identity cues and when prototypical female traits were negatively linked to negotiation success. However, businesswomen who perceived their gender and professional identities as incompatible (low G-PII) exhibited the opposite "contrast" effect. These findings suggest that the way women negotiate is influenced in part by individual differences in perceptions of compatibility between multiple identities.

Understanding and managing the link between firms’ strategic risk-taking and salespeople’s defensive behavior in price negotiations

This study investigates how firms’ strategic risk-taking affects salespeople’s defensive behavior in price negotiations with clients, a major performance driver for firms. Despite the importance of firms’ strategy for salespeople’s job activities, research has thus far neglected it as an antecedent of salespeople’s negotiation behavior. Drawing on the expectancy theory, we theorize and test (1) how a firm’s risk-taking strategy affects a salesperson’s defensive behavior in price negotiations and (2) which levers sales managers must handle to control this relationship to the firm’s benefit. To this end, we conduct a multi-method investigation comprising a scenario experiment with 134 business-to-business (B2B) salespeople and an online survey with 377 B2B salespeople. The results reveal that in negotiations with clients, salespeople tend to show lower effort in defending their firm’s position when they perceive the firm’s strategy as risk-oriented. Importantly, sales managers can counteract this negative effect by bolstering salespeople’s instrumentality and expectancy of defending the firm’s position during price negotiations: When salespeople receive outcome-based compensation, particularly combined with pricing authority, the negative impact of the firm’s risk-taking strategy on salespeople’s defensive behavior is reduced.

NEGOTIATIONS IN “CHINESE STYLE”

The article reveals the negotiation tactics of Chinese negotiators and the historical and cultural context of their behavior. The author draws attention to a well-thought-out methodology for collecting information about the views, motives, negotiating position and individual characteristics of foreign colleagues. Representatives of the PRC pay great attention to personal relationships, they try to find out the true intentions of foreigners, and skillfully use moral and psychological tools to influence their interlocutor. When the Chinese want to cooperate with their foreign counterparts, they strive to create the most favorable atmosphere of communication, try to win over them and establish close mutual friendly ties. Representatives of the PRC are very demanding to their “friends” and count on their help and support in many matters. National culture influences the behavior of Chinese negotiators. In particular, it focuses on restraint, control of emotions, “body language,” adherence to the rules of politeness, maintaining calm, restraint and patience. A person must behave in a civilized and dignified manner. The Chinese negotiator should not succumb to provocations, he/she should act thoughtfully, take into account the situation and calculate the benefits and harms of his/her actions. The experience of communicating with the PRC colleagues shows that they can behave harshly, criticize their partners for “wrong” behavior, and exert an “educational” influence on them. Sometimes, foreigners sometimes notice high self-esteem among their Chinese partners, a sense of their intellectual and moral superiority. They perceive this behavior as a tool of pressure on the interlocutor. Foreign observers believe that Chinese negotiators are persistent, resilient, tenacious people who strive to use every opportunity to realize their interests. They use moral means to influence their partner to control the negotiation process and dominate the relationship. Chinese negotiators do not absolutize the significance of the signed agreements and will seek their revision if they see that they can receive additional benefits.

Brightness cues affect gap negotiation behaviours in zebra finches flying between perches.

Flying animals have had to evolve robust and effective guidance strategies for dealing with habitat clutter. Birds and insects use optic flow expansion cues to sense and avoid obstacles, but orchid bees have also been shown to use brightness cues during gap negotiation. Such brightness cues might therefore be of general importance in structuring visually guided flight behaviours. To test the hypothesis that brightness cues also affect gap negotiation behaviours in birds, we presented captive zebra finches Taeniopygia guttata with a symmetric or asymmetric background brightness distribution on the other side of a tunnel. The background brightness conditions influenced both the birds' decision to enter the tunnel aperture, and their flight direction upon exit. Zebra finches were more likely to initiate flight through the tunnel if they could see a bright background through it; they were also more likely to fly to the bright side upon exiting. We found no evidence of the centring response that would be expected if optic flow cues were balanced bilaterally during gap negotiation. Instead, the birds entered the tunnel by targeting a clearance of approximately one wing length from its near edge. Brightness cues therefore affect how zebra finches structure their flight when negotiating gaps in enclosed environments.

Beating the rival but losing the game: How the source of alternative offers alters behavior and outcomes in negotiation.

Decades of negotiations research has emphasized the importance of having alternatives. Negotiators with high-value outside offers tend to have greater power and claim higher values in the focal negotiation. We extend this line of work by proposing that the source of alternatives-that is, who negotiators receive an alternative offer from-can significantly shape their negotiation behavior and outcomes. Specifically, we examine how negotiators' behavior changes when they face a counterpart who has an offer from their rival. Four studies demonstrate that this situation enhances negotiators' motivation to outperform their counterpart's alternative by reaching an agreement with the counterpart. This in turn leads the focal negotiator to make less aspirational first offers and eventually claim less value in final agreements. Our findings highlight the importance of considering the existing relationships among actors directly and indirectly involved in a negotiation, reveal a novel motive that can guide negotiators' behavior and outcomes, and uncover a previously unexplored negotiation strategy. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Mapping Personality Traits and Gender-Based Stereotypes on Perceived Negotiation Skills

Implementing effective dispute resolution strategies such as negotiation has proved to be quite effective whenever there is a divergence of interest between two conflicting groups. This study aims to see if gender-based stereotypes or specific personality traits can positively or negatively influence negotiation skills in an attempt to improve the negotiation process, whereby individuals could be trained to adopt specific behaviors to obtain more favorable negotiation results. Using the expectancy violation theory (EVT) to analyze how individuals respond to unanticipated violations of social norms and expectations whilst negotiating, a quantitative study was carried out among legal officers working in private, public, and parastatal organizations in Mauritius. The sample size, 270, was calculated based on a population size of 899 as per records of the Mauritius Bar Council. The results demonstrate most legal officers were equipped with good negotiation skills, with no significant difference between males and females (U = 1138.50, p > 0.05), while a high level of neuroticism was indicative of poor negotiation skills (τb = −0.167, p > 0.05). These findings demonstrate that participants agreed that their negotiation skills were influenced in gender-dominated meetings which align with the principles of the EVT, the violation of certain expected negotiation behavior based on gender impact negotiation outcomes. Since negotiation skills were significantly associated with negotiation outcomes (χ2(4) = 37.963, p < 0.05), this provides pointers to businesses on how to improve and optimize negotiation outcomes by choosing a negotiator with the most apt personality traits.

From Sexualized Media Consumption to Salary Negotiation: The Relation Between Chronic Self-Objectification Processes and Women’s Negotiation Intentions

ABSTRACT Despite the advancement in women’s conditions in the past fifty years, women are still the targets of forms of oppression that span from sexual objectification to gender economic inequality, which, among other factors, is linked to challenges that women may face with wage negotiation. Bridging these two research areas, in the present correlational study (N = 552), we took the female target perspective and investigated whether everyday sexualized media consumption may be indirectly linked with Italian women’s negotiation intentions in a working scenario (i.e. salary request, negotiation probability, salary raise negotiation). We hypothesized that this association would be mediated by internalization of mainstream beauty ideals, chronic self-objectification, and subsequent lower self-attribution of the fundamental social dimensions of competence, agency, and morality. Path analyses supported the indirect path model on all the negotiation behaviors via self-attribution of competence; a significant indirect path via self-attribution of morality was also found on women’s negotiation probability. Implications for gender economic inequality as well as possible interventions are discussed.

Интеллектуальный концепт переговорных процессов

Whenever people realize that they cannot achieve their goals without working closely with others, there is a need for negotiation. Much research on negotiation focuses on the mutual trust of the parties. However, it is difficult to overestimate the influence of socioemotional components: participants of negotiators often tend to make inaccurate judgments about the situation without gathering necessary information and build their negotiating strategy based on intuitive assumptions. The judgments of negotiators are biased and associated with ineffective interaction of the parties. Individual differences play an important role in determining the strategy of how people conduct negotiations. Motivational and cognitive models can be the basis for a convincing description of negotiation behavior. A psychological theory of negotiation must take into account the personality of the negotiator and must integrate the features of effective motivational and cognitive models. This review highlights recent empirical research examining the social and emotional activity of negotiators. The publications covering the social aspect of behavior during the negotiation processes are considered. The authors investigated how gender stereotypes affect the effectiveness of negotiations, tested the possible impact of positive and negative emotions on the results of negotiations. This study explores the idea that negotiators are more likely to agree to sub-optimal compromise deals than to seek mutually beneficial solutions. The author makes the assumption that this is due to a misunderstanding of the interests of the other side.

United we stand: a principle-based negotiation training for collective bargaining

PurposeThis study aims to identify effective behaviors in labor-management negotiation (LMN) and, on that basis, derive overarching psychological principles of successful negotiation in this important context. These empirical findings are used to develop and test a comprehensive negotiation training program.Design/methodology/approachTwenty-seven practitioners from one of the world’s largest labor unions were interviewed to identify the requirements of effective LMN, resulting in 796 descriptions of single behaviors from 41 negotiation cases.FindingsThe analyses revealed 13 categories of behaviors critical to negotiation success. The findings highlight the pivotal role of the union negotiator by illustrating how they lead the negotiations with the other party while also ensuring that their own team and the workforce stand united. To provide guidance for effective LMN, six psychological principles were derived from these behavioral categories. The paper describes a six-day training program developed for LMN based on the empirical findings of this study and the related six principles.Originality/valueThis paper has three unique features: first, it examines the requirements for effective LMN based on a systematic needs assessment. Second, by teaching not only knowledge and skills but also general psychological principles of successful negotiation, the training intervention is aimed at promoting long-term behavioral change. Third, the research presents a comprehensive and empirically-based training program for LMN.

Binge drinking and condom negotiation behaviours among adolescent girls and young women living in Cape Town, South Africa: sexual control and perceived personal power

BackgroundCondom use among young people in South Africa has declined in recent years and adolescent girls and young women continue to bear the highest incidence of HIV in the country. Young women who have dropped out of school may be more at risk because of traditional gender norms that create substantial power imbalances and a lack of power to negotiate condom use with their male partners, especially when using alcohol and other drugs.MethodsThis study presents an analysis of baseline data provided by 500 adolescent girls and young women (AGYW) from Cape Town communities between November 2016 and November 2018 who were reached for a cluster-randomised trial conducted to assess the efficacy of an evidence-based, young woman-focused intervention seeking to reduce HIV risk and substance use behaviours. The analysis focuses on associations between binge drinking, condom use, and sexual negotiation, including impaired sex (any substance use at last sex).ResultsAGYW who reported frequent condom negotiation with their partners were 8.92 times (95% CI: [4.36, 18.24]) as likely to use a condom when alcohol or other drugs were not used at last sex and 5.50 times (95% CI: [2.06, 14.72]) as likely when alcohol or other drugs were used at last sex (p < 0.05). AGYW who reported frequent binge drinking in the past month (n = 177) had significantly reduced odds of condom use at last sex, irrespective of whether the sex was impaired (OR 0.60, 95% CI: [0.49, 0.73]) or not impaired (OR 0.69, 95% CI: [0.60, 0.81]).DiscussionThe findings highlight the need for interventions that reach AGYW in South Africa by specifically aiming to educate AGYW about the effect of binge drinking on negotiating power in their relationships, thus providing them with the knowledge and skills to increase agency regarding condom use.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02974998 (recruitment completed). 29/11/2016.

Language Art in Business Negotiations of Transnational Trade

Trade activities between countries have become the main way of economic activities, and it is inevitable to conduct business negotiations when conducting trade activities. People usually only pay attention to the negotiation skills, but do not pay too much attention to the expression of language. However, language, tone and behavior will affect the negotiations and produce different negotiation results. Therefore, this paper studies the relationship between language expression and the outcome of transnational business negotiations by collecting real cases about the influence of language arts on the outcome of negotiations and making a specific analysis of the cases. Studies have found that cultural differences between different countries will produce different behaviors in business negotiations, the tone of the negotiation will also affect the outcome of the negotiation, and whether to listen carefully will also make the negotiating parties have different psychological feelings, and ultimately affect the success of the negotiation. Therefore, language arts play a very important role in cross-border trade and business negotiations.

Conflict-based negotiation strategy for human-agent negotiation

Day by day, human-agent negotiation becomes more and more vital to reach a socially beneficial agreement when stakeholders need to make a joint decision together. Developing agents who understand not only human preferences but also attitudes is a significant prerequisite for this kind of interaction. Studies on opponent modeling are predominantly based on automated negotiation and may yield good predictions after exchanging hundreds of offers. However, this is not the case in human-agent negotiation in which the total number of rounds does not usually exceed tens. For this reason, an opponent model technique is needed to extract the maximum information gained with limited interaction. This study presents a conflict-based opponent modeling technique and compares its prediction performance with the well-known approaches in human-agent and automated negotiation experimental settings. According to the results of human-agent studies, the proposed model outpr erforms them despite the diversity of participants’ negotiation behaviors. Besides, the conflict-based opponent model estimates the entire bid space much more successfully than its competitors in automated negotiation sessions when a small portion of the outcome space was explored. This study may contribute to developing agents that can perceive their human counterparts’ preferences and behaviors more accurately, acting cooperatively and reaching an admissible settlement for joint interests.

Supplemental Material for Beating the Rival but Losing the Game: How the Source of Alternative Offers Alters Behavior and Outcomes in Negotiation

Supplemental Material for Beating the Rival but Losing the Game: How the Source of Alternative Offers Alters Behavior and Outcomes in Negotiation

Cultural Insights into Pakistan: Development and Validation of Perceived Cultural Logic Scale

Dignity, honor, and face culture is a new and different normative script for behavior in social interaction and negotiations. The main objective of the study was to develop and validate a theoretical model to measure the cultural logic of dignity, honor, and face culture. The study was configured in three phases using samples from different Universities in Pakistan with an age range of 18-25. In phase A, items were developed using a literature review and Thematic Analysis of data obtained through focused group discussions and interviews. Phase B was comprised of scale development in which the factor structure of the scale was confirmed using Principal Axis Factoring on the sample of N=348 emerging adults. In phase C, the measure was further subjected to confirmatory factor analysis, reliability, and validity procedures (N= 422). It was established through CFA that the measure had construct validity. Coefficient alpha ranged from .93 to .95. Validity of the measure was established through Average Variance Extracted (AVE= .64-.73), Maximum Variance Extracted (MSV= .02-.10) Fornell - Lacker Criterion and Hetro-trait Mono-trait criteria. Overall results indicated that the Perceived Cultural Logic Scale is a self-report, psychometrically sound, and comprehensive measure comprised of 23 items that can be used to evaluate the perception of cultural logic among emerging adults.

North Korea’s reaction to ROK-U.S. Joint Military Exercises and negotiation behavior

North Korea unilaterally suspended inter-Korean dialogue several times under the pretext of the ROK-US combined military exercise. This study aims to reveal that North Korea intends to engage in negotiating behavior to secure leverage in negotiations. To this end, this study analyzed the cases of inter-Korean negotiations during the ROK-US combined military exercise by dividing into cases of inter-Korean negotiations and cases of normal progress. The ROK-US combined military exercises were limited to large-scale joint exercises (such as FS and UFS). We set the analysis period was divided into Kim Il-sung, Kim Jong-il, and Kim Jong-un’s reign in consideration of the influence of North Korea’s supreme leaders. As a result, we derived the following four lessons. First, North Korea carried out inter-Korean negotiations even during the same ROK-US combined military exercise period or sometimes engaged in inconsistent negotiation behavior. Second, North Korea used inter-Korean negotiations, which were suspended during the joint military exercise, as a means of buying time by resuming them after the military exercise, but after a considerable period of time. Third, North Korea tends to suspend inter-Korean negotiations more than it does during the ROK-US combined military exercise since its first nuclear test in 2006. Based on these four lessons, we believe that North Korea has used the ROK-US combined military exercise as a leverage for negotiations.

Gender and Race-Based Differences in Negotiating Behavior among Tenured and Tenure-Track Faculty at Four-Year Institutions

Abstract: Inequities in faculty representation and support have long been documented, though a potentially key contributor to these inequities—negotiation behavior—remains underexplored. We leverage descriptive analyses and hierarchical linear modeling with a sample of over 30,000 faculty to explore gender- and race-based differences across negotiating behavior and institutional responses. Results suggest significant differences in the likelihood of seeking and receiving external offers and negotiating employment. Men of color are less likely to engage in many behaviors, though women of color may be less successful in receiving changes to their employment context. Results have implications for faculty, institutional policy, and future research.

From “Sentencing Negotiations” to “Prosecution-Defense Negotiations”: On the Improvement Path of the Guilty Plea Bargaining System

In China’s guilty plea cases, only limited sentencing negotiations involving the parties are allowed, and the voluntary nature lacks guarantees, resulting in a low willingness of the parties to participate in negotiations and difficulty in realizing the efficiency value of the leniency system for guilty pleas. In contrast to China’s limited sentencing negotiation system, some countries have adopted a “prosecution-defense negotiation” system, which allows comprehensive negotiations between the prosecution and defense on issues such as guilt, conviction, and sentencing, to achieve the active and voluntary guilty pleas by criminal suspects. This system has a high applicability rate and effectively resolves a large number of criminal cases. It is of great significance to absorb and learn from the rationality of the prosecution-defense negotiation system, define the negotiation subjects, expand the scope of negotiations, regulate negotiation behavior, clarify the consequences of negotiation, and establish a localized prosecution-defense negotiation system in China, which is crucial for improving China’s leniency system for guilty pleas and balancing values of justice and efficiency.