Negative Reinforcement Research Articles

Child abuse and non-suicidal self-injury among Chinese university students: the role of emotion dysregulation and attachment style

Although non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) is a worldwide public health concern, the prevalence rate and risk factors for it among Chinese university students are not known. The present study aimed to address these knowledge gaps and examine the interrelationship between child abuse and NSSI frequency and functions as well as psychiatric co-morbidity with emotion dysregulation as a mediator and attachment style as a moderator. Five hundred and thirty-six (F = 359, M = 177) Chinese university students were recruited from two universities in Hong Kong and completed the Functional Assessment of Self-Mutilation, Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, Revised Adult Attachment Scale, Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale and General Health Questionnaire–28. The findings showed that the prevalent rate of NSSI was 22% in the past year. The results showed that child abuse was significantly correlated with psychiatric co-morbidity and emotion dysregulation, and the latter was also significantly correlated with positive and negative reinforcement, and psychiatric co-morbidity. Moderation effects were not established. Non-suicidal self-injurious behaviour was relatively common among Chinese university students in Hong Kong. Their difficulties in regulating their emotions may influence why they hurt themselves and the severity of psychological distress, especially for those who experienced a high level of child abuse in the past.

Tiered Neuroscience and Mental Health Professional Development in Liberia Improves Teacher Self-Efficacy, Self-Responsibility, and Motivation.

After acquiring knowledge of the neuroscience of learning, memory, stress and emotions, teachers incorporate more cognitive engagement and student-centered practices into their lessons. However, the role understanding neuroscience plays in teachers own affective and motivational competencies has not yet been investigated. The goal of this study was to investigate how learning neuroscience effected teachers’ self-efficacy, beliefs in their ability to teach effectively, self-responsibility and other components of teacher motivation. A pilot training-of-trainers program was designed and delivered in Liberia combining basic neuroscience with information on social, emotional, behavioral and mental health issues faced by students. Tier I of the professional development was a 2 weeks workshop led by a visiting neuroscientist. A subset of the 24 Tier I secondary science teachers formed a Leadership Team who adapted the content to the Liberian context and subsequently led additional workshops and follow-up sessions for the Tier II secondary science teachers. Science teachers in both tiers completed the affective-motivational scales from the internationally vetted, multiscale Innovative Teaching for Effective Learning Teacher Knowledge Survey from the OECD. Tier II teachers completed the survey in a pre-post-delayed post design. Tier I teachers completed the survey after the workshop with their attitudes at that time and separately with retrospective projections of their pre-workshop attitudes. Ten of the 92 Tier II teachers participated in structured interviews at follow-up. Statistical analysis of survey data demonstrated improved teacher self-efficacy, self-responsibility for student outcomes, and motivation to teach. Qualitatively, teachers expressed more confidence in their ability to motivate students, engage them through active learning, and manage the class through positive rather than negative reinforcement. Teachers’ own self-regulation improved as they made efforts to build supporting relationships with students. Together, these results demonstrated that (i) teacher affective-motivational attitudes can be altered with professional development, (ii) basic neuroscience, as knowledge of how students learn, can improve teacher competency, and (iii) a training-of-trainers model can be effective in a low and middle income country for disseminating neuroscience knowledge, increasing teachers’ knowledge of students’ social and emotional needs, and promoting educational improvement.

Emotional State and Feedback-Related Negativity Induced by Positive, Negative, and Combined Reinforcement.

Reinforcement learning relies on the reward prediction error (RPE) signals conveyed by the midbrain dopamine system. Previous studies showed that dopamine plays an important role in both positive and negative reinforcement. However, whether various reinforcement processes will induce distinct learning signals is still unclear. In a probabilistic learning task, we examined RPE signals in different reinforcement types using an electrophysiology index, namely, the feedback-related negativity (FRN). Ninety-four participants were randomly assigned into four groups: base (no money incentive), positive reinforcement (presentation of money rewards), negative reinforcement (removal of money losses), and combined reinforcement (money rewards and removal of money losses) groups. In addition, in order to evaluate the engagement of emotional activity in the different reinforcement processes, Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-Expanded Form (PANAS-X) scales were applied before and after the experiment to detect the emotional changes. The results showed that there was no difference between groups in the dopamine-related learning bias. However, compared to the other three groups, negative reinforcement elicited smaller FRN (the difference-wave measure) during the learning, stronger positive affect and joviality, and less fatigue after the learning, in which the difference between the negative and positive reinforcement groups was smaller. The results indicated that pure avoidance motivation may induce distinct emotional fluctuations, which influence the feedback processing.

Rein Tension Signals Elicit Different Behavioral Responses When Comparing Bitted Bridle and Halter.

When a rider maintains contact on the reins, rein tension will vary continuously in synchronicity with the horse's gait and stride. This continuous variation makes it difficult to isolate the rein tension variations that represent a rein tension signal, complicating interpretation of rein tension data from the perspective of horse-rider interaction. This study investigated (1) the characteristics of a rein tension signal and (2) horse response to a rein tension signal for backing, comparing pressure applied by a bit (bridle), or by a noseband (halter). Twenty Warmblood horses (10 young, 10 adult) wearing a rein tension meter were trained to step back in the aisle of a stable. The handler stood next to the horse's withers, applying tension on the reins until the horse stepped back. This was repeated eight times with the bridle and eight times with the halter. Data analysis was performed using mixed linear and logistic regression models. Horses displaying behaviors other than backing showed significantly increased response latency and rein tension. Inattentive behavior was significantly more common in the halter treatment and in young horses, compared with the bridle treatment and adult horses. Evasive behaviors with the head, neck, and mouth were significantly more common in the bridle treatment than in the halter treatment and the occurrence of head/neck/mouth behaviors increased with increasing rein tension and duration of the rein tension signal. When controlling for behavior, the horses responded significantly faster and to a lighter rein tension signal in the bridle treatment than in the halter treatment. By scrutinizing data on rein tension signals in relation to horse behavior and training exercise, more can be learnt about the horse's experience of the pressures applied and the timing of the release. This can assist in developing ways to evaluate rein tension in relation to correct use of negative reinforcement.

Contrasting Mind-Wandering, (Dark) Flow, and Affect During Multiline and Single-Line Slot Machine Play

Slot machines are a very popular form of gambling in which a small proportion of gamblers experience gambling-related problems. These players refer to a trance-like state that researchers have labelled ‘dark flow’—a pleasurable, but maladaptive state where players become completely occupied by the game. We assessed 110 gamblers for mindfulness (using the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale), gambling problems (using the Problem Gambling Severity Index), depressive symptoms (using the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale), and boredom proneness (using the Boredom Proneness Scale). Participants played both a multiline and single-line slot machine simulator and were occasionally interrupted with thought probes to assess whether they were thinking about the game or something else. After playing each game, we retrospectively assessed dark flow and affect during play. Our key results were that the number of “on-game” reports during the multiline game were significantly higher than the single-line game, and that we found significantly greater flow during the multiline game than the single-line game. We also found significantly lower negative affect during the multiline game than the single-line game. Using hierarchical multiple regression, we found that dark flow accounted for unique variance when predicting problem gambling severity (over and above depression, mindfulness, and boredom proneness). These assessments help bolster our previous assertions about escape gambling—if some players are prone to having their mind-wander to negative places, the frequent but unpredictable reinforcement of multiline slot machines may help rein in the wandering mind and prevent minds from unintentionally wandering to negative thoughts.

Kappa‐Opioid Receptors Modulate Innate and Learned Responses to Positive and Negative Reinforcers

There are few effective and approved treatments for Substance Use Disorders (SUDs) but clinical and preclinical research has shown therapeutic potential for Kappa-opioid receptor (KOR) antagonists. The leading theory of the KOR system's role in SUD posits that chronic substance use augments expression and release of the aversive KOR ligand, dynorphin, which produces a dysphoric state. In this model, upregulation of dynorphin/KOR activity drives continued substance use through a negative reinforcement mechanism whereby substances are consumed to alleviate the negative affective state. While systemic KOR antagonists have been shown to reduce drug consumption in several preclinical models, direct effects on positive and negative reinforcement schedules have not been systematically investigated. In the present study we investigate the effects of systemic antagonism of KORs by nor-Binaltorphimine (NorBNI) on acquisition and maintenance of operant responding reinforced by presentation of sucrose (positive reinforcement) or removal of footshock (negative reinforcement). Based on the prevailing theory that KOR activation is aversive and drives negative reinforcement in addiction, we hypothesized that antagonism of the system would result in decreased responding under the negative reinforcement contingency and have no effect on positive reinforcement. Male C57BL/6J mice received 10 mg/kg intraperitoneal injections of the long-acting KOR antagonist NorBNI or 10 ml/kg saline 24 hours prior to their first session. Animals acquired a discriminated operant response for a positive or negative reinforcer (separate cohorts) whereby a cue light above the active nose-poke (presented on a variable time schedule) served as a discriminative stimulus indicating when a nose-poke would result in the receipt of sucrose or the removal of a series of shocks. Contrary to our hypothesis, mice that received NorBNI showed increased performance during acquisition of both positive and negative reinforcement contingencies compared to saline control mice. These results suggest a novel role of the KOR system in learning that is independent of the valence of the stimulus. We also found differential innate responses to sucrose and footshock prior to operant conditioning suggesting a key role of the system in encoding information about stimuli both aversive and non-aversive. These results call for a reevaluation of the role of KOR signaling in behavioral control and how this system influences drug taking behaviors.

111 Ability to interpret and apply animal behavior and welfare terminology by adults within the horse industry

Interpretations of horse behavior are diverse among equestrians and may be influenced by a misunderstanding of animal behavior and welfare terminology. This study explored how horse industry adults interpret and understand fundamental animal behavior, welfare, and operant conditioning (OC) concepts as applied to horses. A sample of 1145 adults completed an online survey containing horse-related psychographic questions, horse-human interaction videos with and without heart rate (HR) data, terminology questions related to specific behavioral and welfare states in horses, and scenarios related to animal learning. Data were analyzed with frequency counts (SPSS ver. 25), and when appropriate, correlations, cross-tabulations, or mixed model ANOVA (SAS ver. 9.4). Most participants identified as female (94%), white (94%), and live in the United States (63%). Most (96%) previously owned a horse, 86% currently owned a horse, and 4% had never owned a horse. Few participants provided complete definitions for fear (14%), stress (34%), or reactivity (1%), but some provided partial definitions for these terms (63% for fear, 43% for stress, and 29% for reactivity). Most (80%) correctly identified the normal resting HR for an adult horse. When viewing horse-human interaction videos, 83% of participants did not change their interpretation of the horse's behavior in the videos after the HR was revealed, suggesting a lack of understanding of the potential impacts of fear, stress, and reactivity on horse HR. Few participants were able to correctly define terms used in OC such as negative reinforcement (7%), negative punishment (8%), positive reinforcement (9%), and positive punishment (12%). When selecting the OC principle for horse-human interaction scenarios, more participants (42%; P = 0.001) correctly identified positive reinforcement compared with negative punishment (16%), negative reinforcement (23%), and positive punishment (19%). No differences ( P > 0.14) were found between participants’ abilities to correctly define fear, stress, reactivity, or any of the OC principles, based on gender, race, age, horse ownership, or ability to correctly identify resting HR. Compared with US participants, those living outside the US were more likely ( P < 0.006) to correctly understand negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment. These findings suggest that education in these areas is needed for all individuals who interact with horses, regardless of gender, race, age, or horse ownership. Improved understanding of behavioral terminology and OC principles for horses may positively impact horse welfare.

Understanding the Slot Machine Zone

The slot machine zone describes a ‘trance-like’ state of diminished attention to time passing and gambling-irrelevant events during Electronic Gaming Machine (EGM) use. This article summarizes two prominent theoretical accounts of this state and articulates a new account that seeks to integrate them. Zone experiences are correlated with gambling problems and may be amplified by specific features of EGMs and other modern gambling formats. Links with excitement, relaxation, and depression have been found, implicating both positive and negative reinforcement processes. Emerging evidence suggests gamblers in the zone are more focused on EGM use (‘zoned in’). Models rooted in either Flow Theory or dissociation do not fully account for these effects. Integrating earlier models, we propose a continuum of gambling immersion as a function of problem gambling severity. Cognitive studies aimed at clarifying the psychological nature of immersion will help inform programmes that treat and prevent gambling harm.

Single Exposure to Cocaine Impairs Reinforcement Learning by Potentiating the Activity of Neurons in the Direct Striatal Pathway in Mice.

Plasticity in the glutamatergic synapses on striatal medium spiny neurons (MSNs) is not only essential for behavioral adaptation but also extremely vulnerable to drugs of abuse. Modulation on these synapses by even a single exposure to an addictive drug may interfere with the plasticity required by behavioral learning and thus produce impairment. In the present work, we found that the negative reinforcement learning, escaping mild foot-shocks by correct nose-poking, was impaired by a single in vivo exposure to 20 mg/kg cocaine 24 h before the learning in mice. Either a single exposure to cocaine or reinforcement learning potentiates the glutamatergic synapses on MSNs expressing the striatal dopamine 1 (D1) receptor (D1-MSNs). However, 24 h after the cocaine exposure, the potentiation required for reinforcement learning was disrupted. Specific manipulation of the activity of striatal D1-MSNs in D1-cre mice demonstrated that activation of these MSNs impaired reinforcement learning in normal D1-cre mice, but inhibition of these neurons reversed the reinforcement learning impairment induced by cocaine. The results suggest that cocaine potentiates the activity of direct pathway neurons in the dorsomedial striatum and this potentiation might disrupt the potentiation produced during and required for reinforcement learning.

The Application of Laswell Communication Model on The Good Message Within Religious Malay Films

The general public perceives film as the factor that encourages negativity in the behaviour of its audience. However, through the perspective of film studies, the film can serve as the means to convey a good message. However, more in-depth reviews need to be done to attest to its capability in doing so. Therefore, using Laswell Communication Model (1948), this study was carried out to examine the good messages from religious Malay films. This study used qualitative content analysis design. by using purposive sampling, the researcher chose four Malay films as the subjects in this film study. The movies were Maut (Death) (2009), Syurga Cinta (Love Heaven) (2009) and Nur Kasih (The Light of Love) The Movie (2011). The films were watched and analysed by inserting all the facts into content analysis forms - the film meaning evaluation form and theme coding form. Narrative and theme analysis were used to analyse the film text data. Overall, the study found that the Malay religious films examined to discuss the concept of good message. There were four themes from the religious Malays films analysis which were promoting the good messages; the plays of emotions, based on the target group, negative reinforcement style and the good advice. However, not all the film samples highlight the idea of good messages in their purest sense as they are inharmonious with the principle of Amar Ma’ruf Nahi Munkar (encouraging good deeds, forbidding bad acts).

Expert opinion in panic disorder: The impact of COVID-19-related fears, protective devices, and lockdown on panic and agoraphobia

During the COVID-19 pandemic a perceived decline of mental well-being was reported both in people with preexisting psychiatric disorders and in people without. However, individuals with different psychiatric vulnerabilities may differ in their responses to COVID-19-related stressors. In this commentary we proposed a few considerations on possible peculiar patterns of pandemic-related behaviors or complaints in patients suffering from panic disorder (PD) with or without agoraphobia (AG). Individuals with PD may be particularly sensitive to multiple pandemic-related aspects involving respiration (e.g., wearing facial masks or COVID-19-related respiratory symptoms) that may worsen or trigger panic symptoms. In case of comorbid AG, an initial improvement of panic–phobic symptoms during the lockdown may have occurred, followed by a subsequent symptom exacerbation when the containment measures became less rigorous, possibly related to lockdown-associated negative reinforcement and impairment in consolidation of fear extinction. Personalized interventions should be offered to the patients to minimize the risk of worsening or relapse.

Cues conditioned to withdrawal and negative reinforcement: Neglected but key motivational elements driving opioid addiction.

Opioid use disorder (OUD) is a debilitating disorder that affects millions of people. Neutral cues can acquire motivational properties when paired with the positive emotional effects of drug intoxication to stimulate relapse. However, much less research has been devoted to cues that become conditioned to the aversive effects of opioid withdrawal. We argue that environmental stimuli promote motivation for opioids when cues are paired with withdrawal (conditioned withdrawal) and generate opioid consumption to terminate conditioned withdrawal (conditioned negative reinforcement). We review evidence that cues associated with pain drive opioid consumption, as patients with chronic pain may misuse opioids to escape physical and emotional pain. We highlight sex differences in withdrawal-induced stress reactivity and withdrawal cue processing and discuss neurocircuitry that may underlie withdrawal cue processing in dependent individuals. These studies highlight the importance of studying cues associated with withdrawal in dependent individuals and point to areas for exploration in OUD research.

Endogenous opioids contribute to the feeling of pain relief in humans.

Endogenous opioids mediate the pleasurable responses to positively reinforcing stimuli such as palatable food. Yet, the reduction or omission of a negative experience can also be rewarding (negative reinforcement). As such, pain relief leads to negative reinforcement and evokes a pleasant feeling in humans. Although it has been shown that the feeling of pleasure associated with positive reinforcement is at least partly mediated through endogenous opioids, it is currently unknown whether similar neurochemical mechanisms are involved in the pleasant feeling evoked by pain relief. In this study, 27 healthy participants completed 2 identical experimental sessions, 1 with placebo and 1 with naltrexone, an endogenous opioid antagonist. Pain relief was induced by superficial cooling after heat stimulation of capsaicin-sensitized skin. Participants rated the relief and pleasantness in response to the cooling. Endogenous opioid blockade by naltrexone decreased relief and pleasantness ratings compared with placebo (P = 0.0027). This study provides evidence that endogenous opioids play a role in mediating the pleasant feeling of pain relief in humans. Clinically, the rewarding nature of pain relief and its underlying mechanisms require consideration because of their potential reinforcing effects on behaviors that might be beneficial short-term but maladaptive long-term.

Роль тиреоїдних гормонів у формуванні просторової пам’яті щурів у ранньому онтогенезі

Changes in behavioral and mnestic activity, as well as their neurochemical support in thyroid dysfunction were determined in juvenile Wistar rats. Behavioral activity was studied in an elevated cruciform labyrinth, the study of spatial memory was performed by the development of protective avoidance reaction in the Morris water labyrinth, and by the production of food reactions in the 8-beam labyrinth. The content of free amino acids of the neurotransmitter spectrum and serotonin was determined by thin layer chromatography followed by spectrophotometry. It was found that thyroid dysfunction in early ontogenesis was accompanied by significant impairments of emotional and cognitive activity depending on the thyroid status of rats; differences in the mechanisms of the formation of spatial memory with negative and positive reinforcement were also found. At the same time, the anxiolytic type of behavior and formation of spatial memory in juvenile animals with experimental hyperthyroidism are possibly provided by an increase in GABA content in the neocortex by 40% and a decrease in serotonin level in the hippocampus by 32%. Experimental hypothyroidism caused an anxiogenic effect and cognitive impairment, which were accompanied by an excessive increase by 51% in the neocortical serotonin content.

Implementation Quality Impacts Fourth Grade Students' Participation in Physically Active Academic Lessons.

It is important to assess implementation of active learning interventions to maximize their impact. Implementation quality, or how well one engages program participants, has been less studied than other implementation components (e.g., dose, fidelity). This cross-sectional, exploratory study examined associations between teacher engagement behaviors, quality of teacher engagement (i.e., teacher feedback), and student physical activity outcomes during active classroom lessons. This study used data from the Texas Initiatives for Children's Activity and Nutrition (I-CAN!) randomized controlled trial. Fixed effects regressions investigated the impact of teacher engagement behaviors on student physical activity outcomes. Bivariate correlations examined associations between teacher feedback and student physical activity outcomes. A latent profile analysis explored whether there were subsets of teachers with similar feedback profiles. The final analytic sample included 82 teachers. Teacher-directed changes and teacher participation in physical activity were each associated with higher ratings for how many and how often children were active during lessons. Teacher participation in physical activity was also significantly related to higher ratings for student physical activity intensity (all p < .05). Physical Activity Reinforcement and Technical Instruction feedback were positively associated with activity intensity (r = - .20, p < .05 and r = .34, p < .01, respectively). Technical Instruction feedback was positively associated with how many (r = .25, p < .01) and how often (r = .41, p < .01) students were active during lessons. Negative feedback was negatively associated with how often (r = - .25, p < .05) students were active and activity intensity (r = - .25, p < .05). Game Instruction was negatively related to how often students were active (r = -.23, p < .05). All teachers were represented by high levels of Game Instruction and Classroom Management feedback, moderate levels of Content Reinforcement and Content Instruction feedback, and low levels of Negative, Technical Instruction, and Physical Activity Reinforcement feedback. These data did not indicate the existence of multiple feedback profiles. Findings suggest that teacher engagement and feedback to students during active lessons can promote student physical activity. Teachers are primarily responsible for implementing school-based interventions, so it is critical to develop strategies that increase their ability to implement them successfully. Opportunities to maximize intervention delivery, such as co-designing with teachers, should be utilized when designing school-based, physical activity interventions.

Application of Negative Reinforcement and Reward Technique to Reduce Behavior of Collecting Goods In Individual with Schizophrenia

Our subject is a 55-year-old man and a former civil servant. He claimed to have seen someone who others could not see. He believed that he is an important person. He had strange behavior such as separating himself from others, speaking and laughing alone, and collecting rubbish. Based on the assessment through observation, interviews, and psychological tests, the subject was diagnosed with schizophrenia and behavioral problems such as collect things. The subject’s behavior appears because he feels pleasure after collecting goods. He did not do other activities that make him feel good; thus, the behavior was repeated. The intervention aims to reduce the frequency of collecting things through negative reinforcement and rewards techniques. The intervention eventually suppressed the behavior of collecting things carried out by the subject gradually.

Suicidal behaviour and addiction: An inseparable couple? Mechanisms underlying the association and targets for interventions

Suicidal behaviour is common in people with substance use disorder or behavioural addictions, and vice versa. Suicidal behaviour and addiction share many risk factors, such as increased allostatic load, and are associated with dysregulations of reward processing and impaired prefrontal cortex functioning, resulting in decision-making problems, loss of cognitive control, and impulsivity. Trait impulsivity predisposes the individual to increased sensitization to stressors or addictive stimuli. Addiction emerges when the motive for a pleasurable substance or activity transitions from positive to negative reinforcement. At this point, the stress response system is activated, and the main motivator shifts from pleasure to the escape from an aversive stimulus –withdrawal and craving. In parallel, insufferable psychological pain is the core component of the suicidal process, and a suicide attempt has been conceptualized as a way to reduce or escape it. Both states are associated with increased pain perception, stress system activation, inflammation, and anhedonia. However, while addiction generally reflects a shift from pleasure to the avoidance of negative stimuli, the pleasure is less identifiable in the suicidal process. Furthermore, not all individuals that engage in suicidal behaviours are impulsive or have an addiction, and not all individuals with addiction engage in suicidal behaviours. Yet, the understanding of the shared neurobiological component of addiction and suicidal behaviours may inform possible interventions in some individuals. Reward, pain, and stress systems are possible targets. Promising substances related to these systems that could reduce suicide risk include buprenorphine, lithium, ketamine, and psychological interventions aimed at psychological pain reduction and resilience.DisclosureNo significant relationships.

‘Publish and Flourish’ instead of ‘Publish or Perish’: A Motivation Model for Top-quality Publications

Although the ‘publish-or-perish’ principle has spread globally, many authors believe that it is a negative reinforcer (motivator) and harmful. With this paper, we have tried to help overcome the growing pressure of negative reinforcers on researchers. The paper aimed to propose a model for factors influencing researchers to publish in WoS/Scopus journals, based mainly on positive reinforcement and a combination of concepts including theories of control, management, stakeholders, and psychology. The model was intended for Bulgarian universities. It covered 17 motivational drivers and 29 potential features of internal university stakeholders directly involved in the topic. Factor ranking was not incorporated in the model. The research methodology covered the methods of expert evaluation, analysis/synthesis, induction/deduction, and the toolkit consisted of a comprehensive survey and Kendall’s rank concordance coefficient. The model was implemented at a Bulgarian state university. The empirical study was conducted among 120 researchers. It resulted in factor rankings by university internal stakeholders. The highest-ranked motivational driver was reputation, and the lowest-ranked was the publish-or-perish pressure reducing. The highest-ranked potential features were university prestige and potential and support for promotion. We believe that this model contributes to the theory of behaviour control. The model will also improve university research management by enriching its tools.

Dissociating brain systems that respond to contingency and valence during monetary loss avoidance in adolescence

Negative reinforcement processes allow individuals to avoid negative and/or harmful outcomes. They depend on the brain’s ability to differentiate; (i) contingency from non-contingency, separately from (ii) judgements about positive and negative valence. Thirty-three males (8–18 years) performed a cued reaction-time task during fMRI scanning to differentiate the brain’s responses to contingency and valence during loss avoidance. In two conditions, cues indicated no -contingency between participants’ responses and monetary loss – (1) CERTAIN LOSS (negative valence) of €0.20, €1 or €5 or (2) CERTAIN LOSS AVOIDANCE (positive valence). In a third condition, cues indicated a contingency between short reaction times and avoidance of monetary loss. As expected participants had shorter reaction times in this latter condition where CONDITIONAL LOSS AVOIDANCE cues activated salience and motor-response-preparation brain networks - independent of the relative valence of the contrast (CERTAIN LOSS or CERTAIN LOSS AVOIDANCE). Effects of valence were seen toward the session’s end where CERTAIN LOSS AVOIDANCE cues activated ventral striatum, medial-orbitofrontal cortex and medial-temporal areas more than CERTAIN LOSS. CONDITIONAL LOSS AVOIDANCE trials with feedback indicating “success” activated ventral striatum more than “failure feedback”. The findings support the hypothesis that brain networks controlling contingency and valence processes during negative reinforcement are dissociable.

Effect of Coronavirus Disease 2019 on the Psychology and Behavior of Patients on Methadone Maintenance Treatment in Wuhan, China: A Clinical Observational Study.

Methadone maintenance treatment (MMT) is a national strategy adopted for the treatment of heroin dependency in China. The sudden outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and the resultant social isolation in Wuhan have also had a significant negative impact on local patients undertaking MMT. In this study, 76 patients on MMT from the Wuhan First Health Clinic were selected as the research objects to investigate the effect of COVID-19 on the levels of stress, anxiety, and depression, as well as the withdrawal symptoms and craving and substance use. Our results revealed that, during the outbreak, the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) score, HAMA score, HAMD score, and craving in the included patients was significantly higher than that at the baseline and post-epidemic (p < 0.01, p < 0.01, p < 0.01, p < 0.01, respectively); the positive rate of morphine and methamphetamine urine test was significantly lower than that the post-epidemic (p = 0.01, p < 0.01, respectively); the amount of tobacco used during the outbreak and the post-epidemic period was significantly higher than that at the baseline (p < 0.01, p < 0.01, respectively), while the amount of alcohol consumed at the outbreak was significantly higher than at the baseline and the post-epidemic (p < 0.01, p < 0.01, respectively). The negative emotions aroused by the COVID-19 outbreak and the accompanying social isolation to patients on MMT are an important factor of negative reinforcement that adversely affected the patients' craving for drugs and the consumption of legal substances. This finding suggests the need to strengthen the psychological counseling for patients on MMT during severe epidemic, actively alleviating the negative emotions, reducing the risk of substance abuse, and strengthening drug management after the epidemic to prevent the rise of substance (legal or illegal) abuse.