Negative Reciprocity Research Articles

Spectral Characterization of Graphs with Respect to the Anti-Reciprocal Eigenvalue Property

Let G=(V,E) be a simple connected graph with vertex set V and edge set E, respectively. The term “anti-reciprocal eigenvalue property“ refers to a non-singular graph G for which, −1λ∈σ(G), whenever λ∈σ(G), ∀λ∈σ(G). Here, σ(G) is the multiset of all eigenvalues of A(G). Moreover, if multiplicities of eigenvalues and their negative reciprocals are equal, then that graph is said to have strong anti-reciprocal eigenvalue properties, and the graph is referred to as a strong anti-reciprocal graph (or (−SR) graph). In this article, a new family of graphs Fn(k,j) is introduced and the energy of F5(k,k2)k≥2 is calculated. Furthermore, with the help of F5(k,k2), some families of (−SR) graphs are constructed.

How and When Generalized Reciprocity and Negative Reciprocity Influence Employees' Well-Being: The Moderating Role of Strength Use and the Mediating Roles of Intrinsic Motivation and Organizational Obstruction.

Although the literature has shown that generalized reciprocity and negative reciprocity as exchange norms can significantly influence employees' outcomes, knowledge about how and when the two types of norms influence employees' well-being is limited. Based on social exchange theory and self-determination theory, we built and investigated a model by conducting a large questionnaire survey with 551 employees and managers. The results of the structural equation model supported our hypotheses. First, generalized reciprocity is positively related to well-being, and negative reciprocity is negatively related to well-being. Both intrinsic motivation and perceived organizational obstruction can meditate roles in the above relationships. Moreover, strength use can enhance the relationship between generalized reciprocity and intrinsic motivation, and it can also weaken the relationship between negative reciprocity and perceived organizational obstruction. Our research represents a significant step towards better understanding the work-related implications of imbalanced reciprocity, highlighting the destructive influence of negative reciprocity on employees' well-being.

Pay or nudge employees into change? A theoretical and experimental investigation of the effect of nudging for organizational change

AbstractOrganizational change often fails due to employees' resistance to change resulting in unforeseen expenses, delays, or other disruptions in organizations. In our experiment, we compare behavioral interventions—a pro‐change default rule and a pro‐change recommendation—with a costly pay raise to foster supportive behavior. In regard to the pure nudge used (default), we support its effectiveness in enhancing change‐related success. In line with our model and based on the assumption of low decision confidence in change settings, we find that a preference nudge (recommendation) lacks a corresponding effect. In addition, we find that a pay raise has a positive effect that is likely to be triggered by positive reciprocity. If this pay raise fails to materialize, we report supporting evidence for negative reciprocity. We compare the effect sizes for these nudges and the pay raise and provide insights for the relative cost‐effectiveness of such nudges compared to a pay raise for organizational change. We conclude with managerial implications.

Apes reciprocate food positively and negatively.

Reciprocal food exchange is widespread in human societies but not among great apes, who may view food mainly as a target for competition. Understanding the similarities and differences between great apes' and humans' willingness to exchange food is important for our models regarding the origins of uniquely human forms of cooperation. Here, we demonstrate in-kind food exchanges in experimental settings with great apes for the first time. The initial sample consisted of 13 chimpanzees and 5 bonobos in the control phases, and the test phases included 10 chimpanzees and 2 bonobos, compared with a sample of 48 human children aged 4 years. First, we replicated prior findings showing no spontaneous food exchanges in great apes. Second, we discovered that when apes believe that conspecifics have 'intentionally' transferred food to them, positive reciprocal food exchanges (food-for-food) are not only possible but reach the same levels as in young children (approx. 75-80%). Third, we found that great apes engage in negative reciprocal food exchanges (no-food for no-food) but to a lower extent than children. This provides evidence for reciprocal food exchange in great apes in experimental settings and suggests that while a potential mechanism of fostering cooperation (via positive reciprocal exchanges) may be shared across species, a stabilizing mechanism (via negative reciprocity) is not.

Corporate political activity and the constraint of stakeholder reciprocity

Corporate political activity (CPA) has been linked to significant problems, such as agency costs for firms and the weakening of democratic institutions. We explain a previously unexplored problem of CPA: the constraint of negative stakeholder reciprocity. Reciprocity is a ubiquitous phenomenon that adds a moral dimension to markets. A robust stakeholder theory literature explains how treating stakeholders generously improves firm performance through patterns of positive reciprocity, and treating stakeholders poorly diminishes performance through patterns of negative reciprocity. Some firms, however, use CPA to avoid negative reciprocity and its economic consequences while treating at least some of their stakeholders poorly. We describe the elements necessary for reciprocity and explain how CPA targets and impairs these elements. Because reciprocity is a market governance mechanism, the intentional constraint of negative reciprocity tends to result in stakeholder mistreatment and market inefficiency.

Team abusive supervision and team behavioral resistance to change: The roles of distrust in the supervisor and perceived frequency of change

SummaryWhy do teams exhibit behavioral resistance to change? It depends on the behavior of team supervisors who are in charge of change implementation. Drawing on social exchange theory and the norm of negative reciprocity, we expect that teams reciprocate team abusive supervision through behavioral resistance to change and that this relationship is explained by team distrust in the supervisor and contingent upon team perceived frequency of change. To test these hypotheses, we collected three‐wave data from 124 teams in four Chinese organizations that were implementing a pay system based on team performance. The results showed that team abusive supervision was positively related to team behavioral resistance to change. Both team cognitive distrust and affective distrust mediated the relationship between team abusive supervision and team behavioral resistance to change. Moreover, perceived frequency of change strengthened the relationship between team abusive supervision and team affective distrust (rather than team cognitive distrust) in the supervisor and the indirect relationship between team abusive supervision and team behavioral resistance to change via team affective distrust. By employing a team abusive supervision perspective, this study expands our knowledge of the drivers of team behavioral resistance to change and provides insights regarding how supervisors should lead their teams during organizational change.

Relationship of Gender Differences in Preferences to Economic Development and Gender Equality

Preferences - concerning time, risk and social interactions - systematically shape human behavior, and contribute to differential economic and social outcomes between the genders. Here, we present a global investigation of gender differences in six fundamental preferences. Our data consist of 80,000 individuals in 76 representative country samples with measures on willingness to take risks, patience, altruism, positive and negative reciprocity as well as trust. Gender differences in preferences were positively related to economic development and gender equality. This suggests that greater availability of and equal access to material and social resources for both genders favor the manifestation of gender-differentiated preferences across countries.

An Examination of Positive and Negative Reciprocity Norms as to Serious Leisure Activities and Demographic Variables

Research conducted on positive and negative reciprocities mainly aims to determine the variables that impact this phenomenon. To this end, this study sought to ascertain the influence of participation in trekking and kickboxing as serious leisure activities along with several other variables on the positive and negative reciprocity attitudes. The study utilized a descriptive survey design and a random sampling method. The findings revealed a significant difference between the choice of serious leisure activities and demographic variables such as gender, age, and education level. Additionally, the mean scores of positive reciprocity attitudes increased proportionately to age and education level. Furthermore, the mean scores of positive reciprocity attitudes of the trekking participants were significantly higher than those of kickboxing participants.Keywords: Serious Leisure Activities, Positive and Negative Reciprocity, Kickboxing, Trekking

Tit-for-Tat! Does negative reciprocity mitigate supervisors’ abusive behaviors on hotel employee outcomes?

ABSTRACT Underpinned by emotional processing, social exchange, and conservation of resources theories, this study highlights the linkage of abusive supervision (ASV) with fear of negative evaluation (FNE) and psychological distress (PDS) in the hotel setting. This paper also investigates negative reciprocity (NRC), which has both mediation and moderation effects. Using a survey questionnaire, 412 employees were approached at 15 five-star hotels in Aswan and Luxor (Egypt). The results indicated that ASV and FNE positively affected PDS. Furthermore, the results revealed that negative reciprocity partially mediated the ASV-PDS relationship. Moreover, NRC mitigated the positive effects of ASV and FNE on PDS. Lastly, this paper also provides academics and practitioners in the hotel industry with meaningful theoretical and practical originality.

When and how workplace ostracism leads to interpersonal deviance: The moderating effects of self-control and negative affect

The negative effect of workplace ostracism on employees has attracted increasing attention. This research, drawing on the perspective of negative reciprocity belief, in combination with the self-regulation theory and the person-environment theory, proposes and tests the positive effect of workplace ostracism on interpersonal deviance, which is negatively moderated by self-control (two-way) and further negatively moderated by negative affect (three-way). Based on a three-wave survey of 233 employees in China, we find that workplace ostracism is positively related to interpersonal deviance. This positive relationship is stronger when employees are low in self-control. Furthermore, this moderating effect exits only when employees’ negative affect is high. Therefore, this research theoretically explicates the positive relationship between workplace ostracism and interpersonal deviance and the boundary conditions of this relationship, and also proposes a practical way to help managers reduce the occurrence of employees’ interpersonal deviation. The theoretical contributions and practical implication have also been discussed.

You scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours: Unethical pro-organizational behavior and deviance in response to different psychological contract states

In this multi-study paper, we integrate Social Exchange Theory and the discretionary workplace behavior literature. Specifically, we posit that by breaching their psychological contract (PC) obligations, organizations may trigger negative reciprocity, which in turn may increase deviant behavior. Moreover, we posit that by fulfilling their legitimately PC obligations, organizations may trigger positive reciprocity, which in turn may increase unethical pro-organizational behavior. Across two studies (3-wave field study with traditional breach measure and 2-wave field study with expanded breach measure and polynomial regression), we found repeated evidence for our hypotheses. Specifically, we found that PC breach (Study 1) and PC under-fulfillment (Study 2) are positively related to the enactment of organizational deviance via negative reciprocity. Furthermore, we found that PC fulfillment (Study 1) and high absolute levels of PC fulfillment (Study 2) are positively related to unethical pro-organizational behavior via positive reciprocity. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.

How to prevent incivility from women employees? The role of psychological contract violation, aggressive reciprocal attitude and conscientiousness

PurposeThe present work investigates the micro-mechanisms underlying the link between psychological contract violation (PCV) and incivility in women employees. Building on social exchange theory (SET) and the norm of reciprocity, the authors utilized a multi-dimensional variable, labeled “Aggressive Reciprocal Attitude” (ARA), composed of three sub-constructs, namely anger, hostility and negative reciprocity, to explain negative women's uncivil behaviors. Further, the effect of conscientiousness is hypothesized to restrain the mechanism of ARA.Design/methodology/approachConfirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Covariance-based Structural Equation Modeling (CB-SEM) were used on a sample of 194 women from 4 different organizations to empirically validate the proposed conceptual model and test the hypothesized relationships.FindingsWomen's ARA is shown as a partial mediator of the relationship between PCV and incivility. Conscientiousness significantly moderates the link between ARA and incivility.Practical implicationsManagers should avoid stereotyping women as more compliant and submissive. Based on women's tendency to reciprocate negatively, this study’s findings suggest that reducing the negative reciprocity attitude is advisable by demonstrating that negative responses are an unsuccessful strategy and encouraging other forms of reaction.Originality/valueBy introducing the negative reciprocity attitude in the construction of the variable ARA, the authors overcome the contradiction between the social role theory, according to which women avoid unsociable behaviors, and studies demonstrating a remarkable presence of conflicts among women.

Revisiting "ill will versus poor skill": Relationship dissatisfaction, intimate partner violence, and observed "communication skills deficits".

For decades, researchers, interventionists, and the lay public have subscribed to the notion that couples low in relationship satisfaction and/or experiencing psychological, physical, or sexual intimate partner violence (IPV) have communication skills deficits. In contrast, experimental studies of communication have concluded that differences were more likely due to partners' "ill will than poor skill." We revisited this debate by recruiting a fairly generalizable sample of couples (N=291) via random-digit dialing and asking them to discuss two top conflict areas ("at your best" and "as you typically do"), thus measuring will-conscious inhibition of hostility and negative reciprocity and production of positivity (i.e., the "conflict triad"). The conflict triad was observed with the Rapid Marital Interaction Coding System, Second Generation. We found partial support for the hypotheses grounded in Finkel's I3 meta-model. Frequency of hostility was associated with a complicated satisfaction × IPV-extent × conversation type × gender interaction, indicating that couples' communication skills are multi-determined. Unhappier couples showed almost no change in positivity when at their best, whereas happier couples nearly doubled their positivity despite their considerably higher typical positivity mean. Negative reciprocity was associated with satisfaction and IPV-extent but not conversation type, implying that immediate instigation combined with risk factors overwhelms conscious inhibition. Intervention implications are discussed.

Distributed fiscal relations and their imaginaries: Metaphors of redistribution and reciprocity in struggles about distributive justice in Austria

ABSTRACTThe article analyzes struggles about distributive justice in Austria, one of the wealthiest countries globally, and proposes a reinforced focus on how metaphors of redistribution and reciprocity create fiscal imaginaries. It analyzes how politicians, lobbyists, and activists strategically mobilize these metaphors in corporate and wealth taxation debates. Campaigns against wealth taxation portray wealth taxation as negative reciprocity and a threat to an imagined middle class. Those arguing in favor of them create images of unjustly appropriated value that needs to be redistributed. The article analyzes those shifts between notions of redistribution and reciprocity and the fiscal imaginaries created through these debates. Notably, the article argues for the necessity to embed discursive analysis within an understanding of contemporary capitalisms. It contrasts the fiscal imaginaries with challenges of fiscal relations, most importantly the distributed character of capital accumulation and the dilemma of the tax state, as governments orchestrate accumulation to capture parts of its value generated via taxation.

The Preference Survey Module: A Validated Instrument for Measuring Risk, Time, and Social Preferences

Incentivized choice experiments are a key approach to measuring preferences in economics but are also costly. Survey measures are a low-cost alternative but can suffer from additional forms of measurement error due to their hypothetical nature. This paper seeks to leverage the strengths of both approaches by proposing a new survey module on risk aversion, time discounting, trust, altruism, positive and negative reciprocity, in which survey items are selected based on ability to predict choices in corresponding, incentivized experiments. The methodology and results provided in the paper can also potentially provide a model for researchers who have specific requirements and want to design their own modules. This paper was accepted by Yan Chen, behavioral economics and decision analysis. Funding: The project received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7-2007-2013) [Grant 209214]. A. Falk and T. Dohmen acknowledge funding from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Research Foundation) [Grant CRC TR 224 (Project A01)] and Germany’s Excellence Strategy [Grant EXC 2126/1-390838866]. Supplemental Material: Data and the online appendices are available at https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2022.4455 .

A moderated-mediation analysis of abusive supervision, fear of negative evaluation and psychological distress among Egyptian hotel employees

By integrating cognitive appraisal and social exchange theories, this paper examines the linkage of supervisors’ abusive reactions with psychological distress through their subordinates’ fear of negative evaluation. This paper also investigates the moderating role of negative reciprocity. Data were gathered from 412 employees at 15 five-star hotels in Egypt and analyzed using PROCESS 4.0 macro in SPSS (Model 5). The findings revealed that abusive supervision was strongly positively connected with psychological distress caused by FNE. Furthermore, negative reciprocity may reduce the abusive supervision-psychological distress relationship. The positive effect of abusive supervision on psychological distress was weaker among hotel employees who held high levels of negative reciprocity. The PROCESS and narratological results highlight the need of taking negative reciprocity into account while investigating undesirable workplace behavior (i.e., abusive acts of supervisors) in the hospitality context by providing fruitful theoretical and practical contributions.

How and why non-balanced reciprocity differently influence employees' compliance behavior: The mediating role of thriving and the moderating roles of perceived cognitive capabilities of artificial intelligence and conscientiousness.

Previous studies have paid more attention to the impact of non-balanced reciprocity in the organization on employees' behaviors and outcomes, and have expected that the reciprocity norm could improve employees' compliance behavior. However, there are two distinct types of non-balanced reciprocity, and whether generalized reciprocity affects employees' compliance behavior rather than negative reciprocity and its mechanisms has not been further explored so far. Building on the social exchange theory and cognitive appraisal theory, we established and examined a model in a scenario-based experiment across a two-stage survey of 316 participants. In this article, we propose that generalized reciprocity (relative to negative reciprocity) positively influences employees' compliance behavior, and thriving at work mediates its relationship. Furthermore, we argue that the positive association between generalized reciprocity and thriving at work is moderated by the perceived cognitive capabilities of artificial intelligence (AI). This association is amplified for people high in the perceived cognitive capabilities of AI. We also propose that the positive association between thriving at work and compliance behavior is moderated by conscientiousness, such that the association is amplified for people high in conscientiousness. These findings have theoretical and practical implications.

The Ethics of Revenge and the Meanings of the Odyssey by Alexander C. Loney

Reviewed by: The Ethics of Revenge and the Meanings of the Odyssey by Alexander C. Loney Emily P. Austin Alexander C. Loney. The Ethics of Revenge and the Meanings of the Odyssey. New York: Oxford University Press, 2019. Pp. xii +265. Hardcover, $78.00. ISBN 978-0-190-90967-3. The Ethics of Revenge and the Meanings of the Odyssey places Odysseus' climactic act of revenge where it belongs: at the center of our interpretation of the Odyssey. With admirably clear prose, Loney traces out the recurring pattern of tisis narratives woven through the poem. The accumulation of these revenge stories demonstrates that, in Loney's words, "tisis breeds endless further plots, making an epic of revenge fatally open-ended" (225, emphasis mine). Although the focus is simple, Loney's comprehensive account of the workings of revenge narratives commands the reader's interest. I, for one, was unprepared to recognize how systematically the poet sets up its readers to be disturbed by the ending—although I have long found the final books of the Odyssey troubling. On Loney's reading, the Odyssey sets up the terms of revenge's justice such that, on those very terms, the execution of vengeance is always ambivalent. For anyone with interests in Homer or revenge narratives, Loney's book has much to offer. The Ethics of Revenge begins with archaic conceptions of vengeance (tisis) (chap. 1). Loney distinguishes between "positive" reciprocity, which aims at balance through the ostensibly free exchange of benefits; and "negative" reciprocity, which is blatantly transactional: tisis is a form of negative reciprocity, where harm is met with immediate and (supposedly) equivalent harm. But as Loney shows, the returning harm is equivalent to the initial harm only insofar as someone judges it to be so. This insight is essential to understanding the inconclusive quality of vengeance: one person's retributive act is, potentially, another person's harm received. The justice achieved by such retributions is limited to the perspective of the one judging. Loney turns to such overlapping stories of tisis in the Odyssey in chapter 2. These overlaps prime the audience to notice ethical complexities among different characters' claims about wrongdoings and merited punishments. For Loney, Zeus' story of Orestes in Book 1 is the paradigmatic tisis narrative of the Odyssey. From this story, Loney distills the elements of all tisis narratives in the poem: absence (Agamemnon away) → unheeded warning / recklessness (Aigisthos ignores Hermes' warning) → preparation for offense (Aigisthos woos Klytaimnestra) → offense (Aigisthos commits adultery with Klytaimnestra and murders Agamemnon) → preparation for retribution (Orestes returns to Mycenae) → retributive act (Orestes kills Aigisthos and Klytaimnestra) → just order restored (Aigisthos has repaid in full). [End Page 535] Loney emphasizes how the unheeded warnings contribute to the ideal of immediate equivalence in tisis: when an offender chooses to perpetrate harm despite a warning (often marked by the term ἀτασθαλίαι), he or she effectively chooses to suffer retribution. The narrator of the tisis story moreover stresses equivalence—in the Orestes paradigm, killing for killing. In the next four chapters, Loney masterfully applies this theoretical and philological work to his interpretation of the poem. Chapter 3 follows three narratives of divine vengeance: Zeus avenging the companions' offense against Helios; Poseidon avenging Odysseus' blinding of Polyphemos; and Poseidon taking vengeance on the Phaiakians, who helped Odysseus. With clear analysis of story patterns and intratextual resonance, Loney shows how these stories evoke latent meanings through their parallels, echoes, or mutual implications. So, for example, Odysseus complicates the narrative of Poseidon avenging Polyphemos with his own story of Polyphemos' wrongs against him and his companions; and the vengeance of Poseidon on the Phaiakians is left literally open-ended, with the poet never telling us if Zeus destroys the island or not. As a result, by the time we get to the central tisis narrative of the poem (chap. 4), Odysseus' vengeance against the suitors comes to us against a varied backdrop of inconclusive and intertwined stories of retribution. In chapter 4, Loney explicates the key aspects of tisis in Odysseus' "terrifying revenge" (cf. Plato's Ion 535c7). For example, the suitors receive five of the poem's nine attributions of ἀτασθαλίαι, marking their wrongdoings as "precipitating harm" that...

Vicious Cycle: Violations of Foreign Nationals’ Rights among CAT Countries

ABSTRACTThis article explains abuse of foreigners’ rights by identifying an unexplored by-product of human rights shaming—reciprocation. By identifying this phenomenon, the article explains countries’ noncompliance with treaty obligations, focusing in particular on noncompliance with the Convention against Torture's (CAT) provisions on foreign nationals’ rights. States who learn about violations of their citizens’ rights in other ratifying countries violate foreigners’ rights at home. The article hypothesizes that the likelihood of violations of foreign nationals’ rights in a country is positively associated with mentions of violations of that country's citizens’ rights in other treaty countries. To test these propositions, the article presents new data on countries’ violations of foreign nationals’ human rights as documented in the CAT Treaty Body's reports. The results of rare events logistic regression analysis support the hypothesis. Conceptualizing this dynamic among CAT countries as negative diffuse reciprocity, the article draws theoretical conclusions and policy implications.

Couple Conflict Behavior: Disentangling Associations With Relationship Dissatisfaction and Intimate Partner Violence.

This study investigates associations between (a) relationship satisfaction and intimate partner violence (IPV: psychological, physical, and sexual) and (b) observed couples communication behavior. Mixed-sex couples (N=291) were recruited via random digit dialing. Partners completed the Quality of Marriage Index (Norton, 1983), the Revised Conflict Tactics Scale (Straus et al., 1996), and one female-initiated and one male-initiated 10-min conflict conversations. Discussions were coded with Rapid Marital Interaction Coding System, 2nd Generation (Heyman et al., 2015). As hypothesized, lower satisfaction was associated with more hostility (p =.018) and less positivity (p < 0.001); more extensive IPV was associated with more hostility (p < 0.001). For negative reciprocity, there was a dissatisfaction × IPV extent × conversation-initiator interaction (p < 0.006). Results showed that conflict behaviors of mixed-sex couples are related to the interplay among gender, satisfaction, and the severity of couple-level IPV. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed.