Negative Life Research Articles

Early life experiences and their impact on our understanding of depression

This paper presents part of a larger Grounded Theory study, which was designed to capture a sample of people's perceptions of living with or, caring for, individuals with depression. Data were collected from a focus group consisting of people with depression (n = 7). In-depth one-to-one interviews were undertaken with eight further respondents (n = 8). Purposeful sampling was used initially. Thereafter, in keeping with one of the key tenets of grounded theory, theoretical sampling was used. The emergent concepts were pursued until saturation occurred. The constant comparative approach was used to analyse the data together with the NVivo qualitative analysis software package. This paper focuses on the respondents' perceptions of the pre-diagnosis, depression encounter. The key category that emerged was 'the pre-diagnosis phase of depression and the now experience'. Five key themes surfaced within this category: (1) negative impact significant life events; (2) self-blame; (3) personal characteristics; (4) pre-diagnosis, depression unknowingness; and (5) pre-help seeking. The findings suggest that those in the field of human services need to better understand the lived experience of people with depression, in order to provide holistic treatment and care.

A Preliminary Study of Negative Self-Beliefs in Anorexia Nervosa: A Detailed Exploration of Their Content, Origins and Functional Links to “Not Eating Enough” and Other Characteristic Behaviors

Objective: The study explored the semantic content and origins of negative self-beliefs, and their functional links to “not eating enough” and other behaviors, in participants with anorexia nervosa (AN). Method: Fifteen women meeting DSM-IV criteria for AN were compared with 17 dieting and 18 non-dieting women matched on age and number of years of education. The main outcome measure was a semi-structured interview. Results: Six themes were identified in the beliefs of participants with AN. These were, in order of decreasing frequency, powerlessness (present in all but three AN participants), failure, defectiveness, unattractiveness, worthlessness and emptiness. Importantly, powerlessness and failure beliefs were consistently present independent of Beck Depression Inventory-II scores. The negative early life experiences associated with these beliefs had high distress and responsibility ratings. Participants with AN reported that they employed specific behaviors, particularly ‘not eating enough,’ and ‘placating others,’ to try to reduce the cognitive and emotional impact of their negative self-beliefs. Discussion: The findings are discussed in relation to the role of powerlessness and the function of “not eating enough” in cognitive theory and therapy for AN.

Trajectories of Symptoms and Impairment for Pediatric Patients With Functional Abdominal Pain: A 5-Year Longitudinal Study

This prospective study characterizes trajectories of symptoms and impairment in pediatric patients with abdominal pain not associated with identifiable organic disease. The Children's Somatization Inventory and the Functional Disability Inventory were administered four times over 5 years to 132 patients (6-18 years old) seen in a pediatric gastroenterology clinic. Individual trajectories were empirically grouped and correlates of trajectory group membership at baseline were evaluated. A model with three unique trajectories was found to adequately fit both symptom and impairment data. Two trajectories indicated relatively long-term improvement and one indicated continued high levels of symptoms and impairment. At baseline, the long-term risk group did not have the most severe pain but had significantly more anxiety, depression, lower perceived self-worth, and more negative life events. These results indicate that several distinct trajectories of relatively long-term outcomes may exist in children with functional abdominal pain. One trajectory indicated long-term risk for a high level of symptoms and impairment. Psychosocial correlates of long-term risk for physical symptoms and impairment, such as child-reported stress and internalizing symptoms, may be useful for treatment planning.

Should never the twain meet? Integrating models of religious personality and religious mental health

The adaptational-continuum model of personality and coping suggests a useful context for research areas that emphasise both personality and coping. The present paper used Ferguson's (2001) model integrating personality and coping factors to combine theories surrounding religious personality and religious mental health. 420 (206 males, 214 females) respondents completed measures of personality, coping style, religious orientation, religious coping, general health, stress, positive and negative affect and life satisfaction. Among respondents, a factor structure of the personality, coping, and religiosity scale was consistent with Ferguson's model; with extrinsic religiosity and negative religious coping loading on a neuroticism-coping factor (N-COPE), and intrinsic religiosity and positive religious coping loading on a low psychoticism-coping factor (P-COPE). The relationship of these two factors with mental health was consistent with predictions, with a N-COPE religious factor being associated with poorer mental health and a P-COPE religious factor associated with better mental health. This integration suggests a simplification of the literature, facilitating an increase in understanding by locating religious orientation and religious coping within two important factors, each with a specific theoretical context to understand the relationship between religiosity and mental health.

Distinguishing between ruminative and distractive responses in dysphoric college students: does indication of past depression make a difference?

Abstract In this study, a model of affectivity as a mediator of the influence of ruminative and distractive response styles (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991) on depressive symptoms and life satisfaction is proposed and examined among a self-reported group of never-depressed (n=78) and previously-depressed college students (n=66). As predicted, significant differences were found between the two groups on measures of negative affectivity, depressive symptoms, and life satisfaction. Results of conducting path analyses indicated important differences between the two groups in how affectivity mediated the link between response styles and psychological adjustment. For never-depressed students, positive affectivity was found to mediate the link between distraction and psychological adjustment. For previously-depressed students, the link between rumination and depressive symptoms was found to be fully mediated by negative affectivity, whereas the link between distraction and life satisfaction was found to be fully mediated by positive affectivity. The present findings are discussed in terms of response style theory.

Application of the high risk model of threat perception to medical illness and service utilization in a family practice.

This study was designed to test the High Risk Model of Threat Perception in a family practice population. Predisposing, triggering, and buffering factors were assessed in 165 patients using psychological inventories. The relationship between these factors and self-reported symptoms, diagnosed chronic problems, and utilization was assessed. Negative affect and number and intensity of life events increased the risk for chronic illness and reported symptoms, while social support and approach style of coping decreased the apparent risk. The numbers of encounters and telephone calls to the office, obtained from the office database, were statistically correlated with negative affect and inversely with social support. The regression analysis predicted 27% of the variance in reported symptoms with negative affect, life events, and avoidance coping as significant predictors. Only 8% and 16% of the variance of telephone calls and office visits, respectively, could be predicted with a similar regression model. These results emphasize the importance of psychosocial factors in medical illness. Routine assessment of psychosocial risk factors in family practice patients is suggested.

Emotional reactions and life changes of caregivers of demented patients when home caregiving ends

Many studies indicate that the cessation of caregiving of demented patients has positive effects on caregivers' lives but contradictory findings have also been reported. The aim of this study was to investigate how the caregivers of demented patients experienced the cessation of caregiving, how caregivers' lives changed after this event, and which factors predicted emotional reactions and life changes. Data were collected from 64 caregivers of demented patients, recruited from a previous controlled intervention study. The semi-structured telephone interviews sought (1) sociodemographic data, (2) emotional reactions the caregivers recalled from the point of cessation of caregiving, and (3) life changes experienced after that time point. At the point of cessation of caregiving, spouse caregivers had higher risk for loneliness, depressive feelings and sorrow than non-spouse caregivers. Feelings of relief were associated with non-spouses. Community care support obtained during the previous intervention study had protected the caregivers from loneliness, depressive feelings and sorrow. After the end of caregiving, spouse caregivers tended to experience more negative life changes. The increased number of leisure activities was associated with the support during community care.

The Development of Depressogenic Cognitive Styles: The Role of Negative Childhood Life Events and Parental Inferential Feedback

The Development of Depressogenic Cognitive Styles: The Role of Negative Childhood Life Events and Parental Inferential Feedback

The Temperamental Determinants of Stressors as Life Changes

Behavioral genetic studies have demonstrated the heritability of many variables taken to be measures of environment and previously thought to be determined only by environment. It has been also shown that personal variables may determine the appearance of stressors understood as life changes (events). The hypothesis underlying this study predicted that the genetic factor does not contribute to the variance of subject-independent stressors, whereas in case of subject-dependent stressors the contribution of the genetic factor is essential. Further, it was hypothesized that temperamental traits that moderate the intensity of experienced stressors account for a considerable portion of the genetic variance of subject-dependent stressors. The study was conducted on 245 pairs of MZ and 219 pairs of DZ twins aged from 19 to 66. Stressors were assessed with the Polish adaptation of the Rahe 's Recent Life Changes Questionnaire. Based on two preliminary studies, life events were divided into three following categories: subject-independent life events, negative subject-dependent life events, and challenges. Temperament traits were measured by means of the Formal Characteristics of Behavior-Temperament Inventory. The data, based on structural equation models and multivariate genetic analysis, allowed for the following conclusions: (1) The variance of independent stressors can be explained by environment only, whereas the additive genetic model best fits the subject-dependent stressors. (2) Heritability of negative, subject-dependent stressors is lower than in case of challenges. (3) Temperament variables, among them especially activity, explain only one type of stressors challenges. (4) Additional analysis of data confirm the role of activity as a moderator that increases the risk of environmental effects and evokes challenges.

The Impact of Early Experience on the Creative Process: Findings from a New Story Completion Task

This study presents evidence of convergent validity for the Narrative Completion Test (NCT), a new story completion task for adults. A sample of 263 college students completed the NCT and a battery of self-report instruments measuring current mood, quality of life satisfaction, psychiatric history, family demographics, life events, and early memories. NCT story completions were coded for clinical features (Depression, Anxiety, Malevolence, Impulsivity, and Abandonment) and adaptive features (Happiness, Affiliation, and Empathy). NCT scores on malevolence and depression correlated positively with self-report depression, low satisfaction with self, and low quality of life satisfaction. NCT Happiness scores correlated negatively with self-report depression. The NCT clinical scores were also sensitive to negative early life events and negative early memories of maternal caregivers, findings demonstrating the impact of early experience on the creative process.

Task Difficulty, Depression, and Life Changes in Family Caregivers of Stroke Survivors

15 Background/Purpose: Over 39% of stroke caregivers suffer from depression. Little is known about the specific caregiving tasks that are associated with depression or the life changes that stroke caregivers experience while providing care. The purpose of this study is to describe the relationships between task difficulty, depression, and life changes in family caregivers of stroke survivors. Methods: As part of a larger study of quality of life in stroke survivors, 32 family caregivers self-completed questionnaires containing the Caregiving Burden Scale (CBS), Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), and the Bakas Caregiving Outcomes Scale (BCOS) with alpha reliabilities ranging from .74 to .96. Relationships between variables were analyzed with Pearson r. A majority of the caregivers were female (94%), with 69% spouses and 31% adult children. African Americans comprised 10% of the sample with 87% Caucasians and 3% from other ethnic backgrounds. A majority of the caregivers were providing care 1 to 6 months following the stroke (97%). Results: Preliminary results indicate that depression and task difficulty were strongly correlated (r = .67, p<.001), as were depression and negative life changes (r = .72, p<.001). Task difficulty and negative life changes were also strongly correlated (r = .72, p<.001). Based on comparison of CBS item means, the most difficult tasks for caregivers were behavioral management (moodiness, irritability, confusion, memory loss, etc.) and providing emotional support. Based on comparison of the BCOS item means, the most negative life changes were decreased time for family and friends. Conclusions: These preliminary results suggest the need for intervention development in the areas of behavioral management, emotional support, and respite for family caregivers of stroke survivors. Educating family caregivers about effective communication strategies and cognitive behavioral techniques to use in dealing with the stroke survivor are potential areas for future study. Because data collection is still in progress, findings from a larger sample will be presented.

Positive and negative life changes following sexual assault.

A longitudinal study was conducted to investigate (a) the timing and course of posttraumatic growth and (b) the relations between positive and negative life changes and posttraumatic distress among recent female sexual assault survivors (N = 171). Most survivors reported positive change even at 2 weeks postassault. Positive changes generally increased over time and negative changes decreased, although change in different domains followed different courses and there was significant individual variability in change patterns. Both positive and negative changes were associated with distress in expected ways, although the relations with negative changes were stronger. The least distress at 12 months was reported by those who noted positive life changes at both 2 weeks and 12 months postassault. Implications for theory and research on posttraumatic growth are discussed.

Positive and negative life changes following sexual assault.

Positive and negative life changes following sexual assault.

“Still Stable after all This...?”: Temporal Comparison in Coping with Severe and Chronic Disease

Temporal comparison theory is used as a conceptual framework for studying coping with life-threatening illness. Propositions derived from this theory were investigated in a questionnaire study on cancer patients ( N = 100). Results reveal high rates of perceived change in the majority of the life domains included in the study, suggesting that consistency could not be maintained in most patients. Furthermore, a disproportion of perceived positive and negative life changes emerged, the latter being more prominent. Change perceptions were related to gender, age, and time elapsed since diagnosis. The relationships between positive and negative change on one hand and adjustment indicators on the other indicated that negative change correlated significantly whereas positive change was not associated with adjustment to illness.

The Contribution of Small Life Events to the Psychological Distress of Married and Widowed Older Women

ABSTRACT The contribution of small life events to the prediction of general psychological distress was examined for 50 married and 21 recently widowed older women. These two groups were contrasted as having or not having experienced an uncontrollable major life stressor (i.e., the recent death of a spouse). Negative small life events (i.e., daily hassles) contributed above and beyond general demographic factors; conjugal bereavement status; social support; other, non-conjugal bereavement, major life events; and the interaction of these life events and social support in the prediction of general psychological distress. Results support assessing negative small life events as well as major life events for both married and recently widowed older women.

Expectations and Life Changes Associated with Surgery for Intractable Epilepsy

This longitudinal study examined the impact of epilepsy surgery on 32 patients and 17 of their significant others. Subjects were assessed prior to surgery and 1 year postsurgery with a semistructured interview that assessed subjects’ presurgery expectations and postsurgery reports of relationship changes, positive life changes, and negative life changes associated with seizure elimination and reduction. Prior to surgery, subjects anticipated that patients would experience a number of changes, including more friendships (49%), greater independence (47%), and the ability to engage in activities such as driving (71%) and working (65%). Most subjects (61%) did not anticipate that the patient would experience any difficulties associated with seizure elimination or reduction. Following surgery, subjects in the seizure-free group were more likely than subjects in the continued seizures group to report relationship changes and positive life changes. Some positive changes, such as reduction in anxiety and fatigue, that were reported at follow-up had not been predicted prior to surgery. It is possible that these benefits of seizure elimination become apparent only once the symptoms are eliminated. Few subjects reported negative changes associated with seizure elimination. The clinical implications of these findings are presented.

Semantic control systems

Definitions of “control” and their consequences are considered in the context of cybernetics and systems science, semiotics, Meta‐System Transition (MST) Theory, and the Powers school of control theory. First systems, meta‐systems, and their properties are defined in terms of cardinal and dimensional distinctions, variety, and constraint. Two senses of control are discussed and contrasted. A number of results are derived: that standard control results in the active maintenance of a subsystem in a stable, dynamic equilibrium; that this equilibrium is at a distinct hierarchical level; and that it is maintained in the face of disturbances from a variable environment. It is asserted that control requires semantic relations within the control system in the form of controller actions which are “appropriate” for the maintenance of “good control.” Semantic relations are discussed in relation to negative feedback, modeling functions, information, codes, meaning, and life. We conclude with a discussion of some cons...

Pet Loss and Mental Health

The purpose of this article is to present results from a pilot study designed to assess the feasibility of conducting research among bereaved pet owners and to present a preliminary description comparing bereaved pet owners who received counseling to bereaved pet owners who did not. The overall response rate, calculated as all who returned a consent form divided by all who were mailed a consent form, was 45.1%, indicating a need to modify the contact procedure for future studies. Depressive symptoms were used as the outcome measure to assess differences between the bereaved owners who received counseling and those who did not. Controlling for the influences of age, gender, self-reported health, negative life changes, and type of pet, there were significant differences in depressive symptoms comparing those who received counseling and those who received no counseling. Individuals who received counseling were significantly more likely to have high depressive symptoms compared with those who received no counseling. In addition, the counseled group had more negative life changes, were more likely to have a dog, had owned their pet longer, had fewer household members, and were more strongly attached to their pets. These results, while preliminary, suggest the importance of providing a source of mental health counseling for people who are undergoing pet loss.

On physiological effects of positive and negative life changes—A longitudinal study

A sample of working men and women were followed longitudinally on four occasions during a year with regard to serum triglycerides, plasma prolactin and systolic and diastolic blood pressure at rest. Participants were asked about life changes that they had gone through during the examination year. They were also asked to rate the importance and the direction (positive and negative, respectively) of the changes. On the basis of this information participants were divided into a no event group (N = 20), a positive event group (N = 11) and a negative event group (N = 11). Statistical analyses revealed that prolactin levels tended to increase in the negative event group whereas blood pressure as well as serum triglycerides increased in the negative event group and decreased in the positive event group.

Positive and Negative Life Changes Following Bereavement and their Relations to Adjustment

We examined positive and negative life changes reported by bereaved spouses and parents 4-7 years after the sudden loss of a family member (N = 94). Although the bereaved described significantly more positive than negative life changes in response to a series of open-ended interview questions, the number of positive life changes reported was unrelated to reports of psychological symptoms and well-being. Analyses examining the impact of positive life changes within particular domains (e.g., social relations, life orientation) revealed the same null pattern. Those bereaved reporting various positive life changes were no better off than their counterparts who did not mention such changes and, like their bereaved counterparts, were in fact worse off than their non-bereaved matched controls