Negative Discrepancy Research Articles

When Do People Initiate a Negotiation? The Role of Discrepancy, Satisfaction and Implicit Negotiation Beliefs

Most studies on the topic of negotiation examine negotiation processes, strategies and results without considering the initiation of negotiation. But isn't it important for a deeper understanding of the negotiation process to know what makes people initiate a negotiation (or not) in the first place? Building on a Theory of Complaining (Kowalski, 1996), we argue that a perceived negative discrepancy between a current state and an individual’s standard leads to the perception of dissatisfaction which in turn leads to a motivation to reduce the discrepancy in the form of initiating a negotiation on the topic. We furthermore propose that in situations with no perceived discrepancy, the intention to initiate a negotiation is influenced by one's implicit negotiation beliefs (Kray & Haselhuhn, 2007) and that this influence is moderated by subjective negotiation ability. Using an online survey, N = 272 student participants at the LMU Munich worked on a scenario experiment. Results show that negative discrepancy increases the intention to initiate a negotiation and that this effect is mediated by satisfaction. In situations with no perceived discrepancy, incremental implicit negotiation beliefs increase the tendency to initiate a negotiation in low ability persons. Our study contains first evidence for the applicability of the Theory of Complaining (Kowalski, 1996) to the initiation of negotiation and provides important insights in the origin of initiating negotiation behavior, taking also into account individual differences in perceived negotiation ability and implicit negotiation beliefs.

Risk of Cesarean Delivery When Second-Trimester Ultrasound Dating Disagrees with Definite Last Menstrual Period

Estimates of gestational age based on early second-trimester ultrasound often differ from that based on the last menstrual period (LMP) even when a woman is certain about her LMP. Discrepancies in these gestational age estimates may be associated with an increased risk of cesarean section and low birth weight. We analyzed 7228 singleton, low-risk, white women from The Routine Antenatal Diagnostic Imaging with Ultrasound trial. The women were recruited at less than 14 weeks of gestation and received ultrasound exams between 15 and 22 weeks. Our results indicate that among nulliparous women, the risk of cesarean section increased from 10% when the ultrasound-based gestational age exceeded the LMP-based estimate by 4 days to 60% when the discrepancy increased to 21 days. Moreover, for each additional day the ultrasound-based estimate exceeded the LMP-based estimate, birth weight was higher by 9.6 g. Our findings indicate that a positive discrepancy (i.e., ultrasound-based estimate exceeds LMP-based estimate) in gestational age is associated with an increased risk of cesarean section. A negative discrepancy, by contrast, may reflect early intrauterine growth restriction and an increased risk of low birth weight.

Correlation of left ventricular dyssynchrony with myocardial stunning using dual single photon emission computed tomography of 123iodine-β-methyl iodophenyl pentadecanoic acid and 201thallium scintigraphy after reperfusion therapy

Left ventricular (LV) dyssynchrony after reperfusion therapy has been closely examined as a cause of chronic remodeling, but the details have not been clarified. The present study measured LV dyssynchrony appearing immediately after reperfusion therapy using real-time three-dimensional echocardiography (RT-3DE), and assessed the significance of this phenomenon in relation to dual single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) of (123)iodine beta methyliodophenyl pentadecanoic acid ((123)I-BMIPP) and (201)thallium ((201)Tl). Subjects comprised 58 patients with first-time acute myocardial infarction who received reperfusion therapy and underwent RT-3DE and dual SPECT of (123)I-BMIPP and (201)Tl within two weeks of onset. Two dyssynchrony parameters were measured using RT-3DE in the acute phase and six months later. After evaluating the correlation of these dyssynchrony parameters to resting (201)Tl uptake, (201)Tl washout, (123)I-BMIPP uptake, and (201)Tl-(123)I-BMIPP discrepancy (Tl-BMIPP discrepancy), we compared scintigraphic parameters in the chronic phase between groups with improved dyssynchrony and those without. Acute dyssynchrony exhibited a significant positive correlation to Tl-BMIPP discrepancy and it was significantly increased in the group with improved dyssynchrony in the chronic phase, revealing close relationship between dyssynchrony and Tl-BMIPP discrepancy. Then the subjects were divided into positive Tl-BMIPP discrepancy and negative discrepancy groups, and the parameters of cardiac function were compared between them. In the chronic phase, improved cardiac function was observed in the group with positive Tl-BMIPP discrepancy compared to negative discrepancy. LV dyssynchrony after reperfusion therapy correlates positively with Tl-BMIPP discrepancy, reflecting acute myocardial stunning, in which ventricular contraction improves during the chronic phase.

Embedded atom method for materials with a negative Cauchy discrepancy

An earlier suggested generalized embedding function by Oni-Ojo et al [J. Nig. Ass. Math. Phys. Vol. 9, 507 (2005) [2]] is here utilized to set up an embedded –atom method (EAM) for materials with a negative Cauchy discrepancy. To be able to do this it was found necessary to drop the usual assumptions that the curvature of the embedding function must be positive definite, while its slope must be negative. Concrete results are provided for the material strontium (Sr). JONAMP Vol. 11 2007: pp. 509-515

The effect of stress‐related factors on post‐performance affects in competitive adolescent swimmers

The present study investigated the influence of perceived stress, goal discrepancy, goal importance, self‐efficacy, and coping on performance‐related affect in adolescent elite swimmers using Lazarus’ Cognitive‐Motivational Relational framework. The participants were 125 adolescent swimmers (14–18 yrs) from four Canadian provinces. Hierarchical regression found that the model accounted for 22% of positive affect, but only performance goal discrepancy and emotion‐focused coping were significant independent predictors. For negative affect, coping and performance goal discrepancy did not make significant additional contributions; only pre‐race factors of self‐efficacy, perceived stress, and goal importance explained 19% of the variance. Furthermore, neither self‐efficacy or goal importance was correlated to the coping functions. Findings are discussed in light of Lazarus's coping framework as well as the consequences of stress appraisals, coping, and performance on affective states.

In Vitro Analysis of Cotton Pollen Germination

Crops with economically valuable reproductive structures show the greatest negative discrepancy between average and record yields. To alleviate environmental stress–related yield reductions, a better understanding of the relative sensitivities of pollen development, dehiscence, pollen germination, pollen tube growth, fertilization, and subsequent boll development is needed. Progress in identifying the sensitivities of these developmental stress responses has been hampered in part by the lack of a rapid and reliable method of germinating cotton (Gossypium spp.) pollen in vitro. The present study describes the development of an in vitro cotton pollen germination system that provides improved pollen germination levels and pollen tube growth over existing methods. This procedure was used to evaluate the temperature sensitivity of pollen from greenhouse and field‐grown cotton. The medium comprises 10% (w/v) agarose (pH 7.6), 25% (w/v) sucrose, 0.52 mM KNO3, 3.06 mM MnSO4, 1.66 mM H3BO3, 0.42 mM MgS04·7H20, and 1.0 μM A3 gibberellic acid. The medium is overlayed with a layer of 1.5% agarose before use. Optimum pollen germination and rapid tube elongation occurred between 28 and 31°C under 80% relative humidity. Decreased pollen germination occurred at temperatures above 37°C, and decreased tube elongation occurred at temperatures above 32°C. Evaluation of pollen, taken at 1400 h from field‐grown cotton plants, showed that pollen from flowers exposed to direct sunlight had reduced viability compared with pollen from flowers inside the canopy. This could be attributed to the fact that flowers from field‐grown irrigated cotton plants exposed to full sunlight experienced internal temperatures as high as 39°C, well above the 28 to 31°C optimum for pollen germination.

A study of well-being among a population of Swedish workers using a job-related criterion-referenced multidimensional vocational assessment

{\it Objectives.} This study involved Swedish workers (n = 106) who perform jobs categorized into four occupational groups from Jist's Enhanced Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) (Technical, Clerical, Service and Miscellaneous occupations) [1]. The workers capacity for work were investigated according to the Criterion Referenced Multidimensional Vocational Assessment (CMVA) comprising four aspects (described below), which were assessed in 14 different ways using 465 items. {\it Method}. The participants were interviewed [2], observed during performance of simulated work tasks [3], and answered mailed questionnaires [4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15]. The collected data were statistically analyzed using descriptive statistics and the tests of Cronbach's alpha coefficient, ANOVA, Chi-square, linear regression and Pearson's correlation coefficient. {\it Results.} The participants' work contained different level of occupationally substantive complexity showing that {\it the work demands} were different for the four work groups. For some of the participants ill-health were detected; The workers' work skills, e.g., {\it the demands} (VALPAR work samples) [3] {\it the jobs required of the worker} was higher than 14 of the workers' capacity for work. It was remarkable that many of the workers (34%) estimated themselves in need for rehabilitative measures (Functional Status Questionnaire) [12,13]. The results suggested that there was a negative discrepancy of what the workers' valued and strived for in connection to what they had attained in their work-lives [15,16]. The {\it psychosocial work environment influenced} the worker both positively and negatively. Participants (about 17%) who are performing their usual work for at least 20 hours a week had risks for ill-health [6]. In several components of CMVA there were significant differences between male and female workers, probably showing that the female workers had a greater burden to perform all the myriad of daily occupations (Self-Assessed Capabilities to Perform Daily Occupations) [7] including salaried work.

The Role of Internal Reference Points in the Category Purchase Decision

The authors study the role that reference effects play in the category purchase decision for consumer nondurable products. Category purchase behavior is represented by a nested logit model that is estimated on purchase records of shoppers in two Universal Product Code (UPC) scanner panels. A series of hypotheses are developed, modeled, and tested regarding the effects that internal reference points for product category attractiveness are likely to have on the decision to buy in a product category on a store visit. The authors hypothesize that the difference between a shopper's reference point for category attractiveness and the current level of category attractiveness will affect the purchase decision. In particular, the extent of purchase postponement caused by a loss (i.e., a negative discrepancy) should exceed the acceleration caused by a gain (i.e., a positive discrepancy). Reference effects on the category purchase decision are also hypothesized to interact with the shopper's familiarity with the store visited on a given trip. In particular, the impact of losses is predicted to be higher in unfamiliar than in familiar stores. The authors present model estimates and test results from two product categories (saltine crackers and liquid laundry detergent) and find all hypotheses to be supported.

Preliminary Study of the Relationship between Guilt Resolution and Depression in a Gerontological Population

An individual interview process was used to investigate the relationship between proneness to depression in a gerontological sample and their evaluation of critical life incidents. High and low depressed individuals were asked to recall prideful and guiltful incidents from their past, and discrepancy scores were obtained between their past and present evaluations of those events. Limited evidence supported the hypothesis that individuals with higher proneness to depression showed a greater negative discrepancy in evaluations of critical life incidents. Subjects did not differ in the content of their recalled incidents as a function of guilt type or guilt referent.

THE EFFECT OF BEHAVIORAL COMMITMENT AND ABILITY DISCREPANCY ON ATTITUDINAL PERSISTENCE

Behavioral commitment and negative task discrepancy were manipulated in a 2 x 2 between-groups factorial design in order to observe their effects on attitudinal persistence on feminist issues and perceived threat of a trivia test score. Results indicated that non-active feminists perceived a greater threat from a discrepant test score than active feminists. Non-active feminists also showed greater agreement to a feminist point of view than active feminists as a result of experiencing discrepancy on a self-relevant task.

Student Evaluations Viewed as a Group Process Factor

Abstract Student evaluations were examined as a special case of more general interpersonal attraction theory. Evaluations were hypothesized to be a negative quadratic function of the discrepancy between grade expected and grade received. Three groups—negative discrepancy, zero discrepancy, and positive discrepancy—were used. The results supported the hypothesis.