Nectar Resources Research Articles

Hyperbolic odorant mixtures as a basis for more efficient signaling between flowering plants and bees.

Animals use odors in many natural contexts, for example, for finding mates or food, or signaling danger. Most analyses of natural odors search for either the most meaningful components of a natural odor mixture, or they use linear metrics to analyze the mixture compositions. However, we have recently shown that the physical space for complex mixtures is ‘hyperbolic’, meaning that there are certain combinations of variables that have a disproportionately large impact on perception and that these variables have specific interpretations in terms of metabolic processes taking place inside the flower and fruit that produce the odors. Here we show that the statistics of odorants and odorant mixtures produced by inflorescences (Brassica rapa) are also better described with a hyperbolic rather than a linear metric, and that combinations of odorants in the hyperbolic space are better predictors of the nectar and pollen resources sought by bee pollinators than the standard Euclidian combinations. We also show that honey bee and bumble bee antennae can detect most components of the B. rapa odor space that we tested, and the strength of responses correlates with positions of odorants in the hyperbolic space. In sum, a hyperbolic representation can be used to guide investigation of how information is represented at different levels of processing in the CNS.

Warming temperatures affect meadow‐wide nectar resources, with implications for plant–pollinator communities

AbstractNectar production may be a point of sensitivity that can help link primary and secondary trophic responses to climate shifts, and is therefore important to our understanding of ecosystem responses. We evaluated the nectar response of two widespread native forbs, Balsamorhiza sagittata and Eriogonum umbellatum, to experimental warming in a high‐elevation sagebrush meadow in the Teton Range, WY, USA, over two years, 2015 and 2016. Warming treatments reduced the occurrence of nighttime freezing and nectar volume but increased sugar concentration in nectar in both species in both years. Warming effects were also evident in a consistent increase in the number of flowers produced by B. sagittata. Our research suggests that warming associated with climate change has the potential to induce shifts in the nectar‐feeding community by changing nectar characteristics such as volume and sugar concentration to which nectar feeders are adapted.

Warming temperatures affect meadow‐wide nectar resources, with implications for plant–pollinator communities

Warming temperatures affect meadow‐wide nectar resources, with implications for plant–pollinator communities

Introduced honey bees increase host plant abundance but decrease native bumble bee species richness and abundance

AbstractLong‐term variation in the population density of introduced honey bees (Apis mellifera) has been shown to be associated with variations in floral traits in alpine lotus (Saussurea nigrescens). However, it remains to be determined whether a high density of honey bees affects the abundance of nectariferous plants and the species richness and abundance of native bumble bees. We predicted that a high density of introduced honey bees lasting three decades would decrease the species richness and abundance of native bumble bees but increase the abundance of honey bee host plant species. Here, field experiments were conducted to examine the diversity of nectariferous plants and native bumble bees along the typical gradients of honey bee density (high density of honey bees close to the apiary and low density of honey bees distant from the apiary). We investigated nectariferous plant abundance, floral and seed traits, and bumble bee species richness and abundance at sites with either high or low honey bee densities in an alpine meadow. Our results demonstrate that an increased population of introduced honey bees is associated with increased host plant abundance and flower/capitulum number per plant but decreased nectar volume per flower, seed mass, and species richness and abundance of native bumble bees. The bumble bee visitation rate was positively correlated with nectar volume per flower at sites close to and far from apiaries. The honey bee visitation rate was positively correlated with flower/capitulum number per plant at sites close to apiaries and nectar volume per flower at sites far from apiaries. Seed mass was negatively correlated with nectariferous plant abundance. Our findings show that introduced honey bees decrease the species richness and abundance of native bumble bees, attributed to an evolutionarily decrease in nectar resources among honey bee host plant species, but increase the abundance of nectariferous plants, attributed to the production of many small seeds by plants. This suggests that long‐term high‐density beekeeping affects the biodiversity of honey bee host plants and native bumble bees. Our results provide new insights into the mechanisms of maintaining the biodiversity of nectariferous plants and native bumble bees.

Distribution and phenology of monarch butterfly larvae and their milkweed hosts in the South Central US

South Central US milkweeds (Asclepias) are critical adult nectar and larval food resources for producing the first spring and last summer/fall generations of declining eastern migratory monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus). This study addresses multiple gaps in assessment of monarch conservation priorities for the South Central US through analyses of monarch larval host selectivity, phenology, and spatial density, as well as the phenology, niche modeled distribution, and land cover selectivity of important milkweed hosts. Results are synthesized to estimate seasonal milkweed resource areas. About 70% of monarch larval activity occurred from mid-March to mid-July (early season) and 30% from mid-August to late November (late season). Twenty-six wild milkweed (Apocynaceae) hosts were mapped, including four new records for North America. Important hosts included Asclepias a. ssp. capricornu, A. viridis, and A. oenotheroides, that were utilized more frequently during early season, and Asclepias latifolia, utilized more frequently during late season. Landscape host selectivity was positive for A. viridis and A. a. ssp. capricornu in late and early seasons, respectively, and negative for A. oenotheroides in late season. Milkweed land cover selectivity was positive for Developed-Open Space and Grassland Herbaceous, and negative for Cultivated Crops and Shrub/Scrub. Seasonal milkweed resource areas and larval spatial densities resolved interior and coastal corridors providing functional connectivity for monarch spring and fall migrations. A potential gap in milkweed resource areas was identified in South Texas. The novel merging of milkweed niche models with larval phenology, host selectivity, milkweed phenology, and land cover selectivity informs conservation assessment.

City climate and landscape structure shape pollinators, nectar and transported pollen along a gradient of urbanization

Abstract Urbanization gradients influence both landscape and climate and provide opportunity for understanding how plants and pollinators respond to artificially driven environmental transitions, a relevant aspect for the ecosystem service of pollination. Here, we investigated several aspects of pollination along an urbanization gradient in landscape and climate. We quantified wild hoverfly and bee abundances with trapping, standing crop of nectar with spectrophotometer, and the pollen transported by flower visitors with DNA metabarcoding, in 40 independent sites from semi‐natural to built‐up areas in Northern Italy. Direct and indirect effects were fitted considering landscape and climate variables. Linear and nonlinear relationships were detected along the urbanization gradient. Pollinator abundances increased quadratically and peaked at 22% of impervious cover with an 81% growth, and they decreased with green‐patch distance by 37% and urban park largeness by 60%. This indicates that pollinators are more abundant at intermediate levels of urbanization. Climatically, pollinators diminished by up to 46% in areas with low spring–summer temperature seasonality: urban areas likely posing thermic stress. Furthermore, the sugar mass available in nectar increased by 61% with impervious cover and by 79% with precipitations, indicating that city nectars were less consumed or flowers more productive. Furthermore, the species richness of pollen decreased by 32% in highly urbanized areas, and contained a high incidence of exotic plants, hinting for anthropized, simplified plant communities. Synthesis and applications. Urbanization influences pollinator abundances, nectar resources and transported pollen in direct and indirect ways. Pollinators are negatively affected by a thermally harsh climate in highly urbanized areas with isolated green areas and large parks. Suburban landscapes demonstrated the highest pollinator presence. In the city core, flowers contained more nectary sugar in association with more precipitations, while pollinators collected pollen from a small number of plants, mainly exotic. These findings highlight the strong influence of urban landscape and climate on pollinators and plants, showing that cities are heterogenous realities. Patterns from this study will serve as basis for pollinator‐friendly planning, mitigation and management of urban landscapes.

Florivory and Pollination Intersection: Changes in Floral Trait Expression Do Not Discourage Hummingbird Pollination.

Many flowers are fed on by florivores, but we know little about if and how feeding on flowers affects their visual and chemical advertisement and nectar resource, which could disrupt pollination. Here, we investigated if damages caused by florivores compromise a Neotropical hummingbird pollination system, by modifying the floral advertisements and the nectar resource. We surveyed natural florivory levels and patterns, examined short-term local effects of floral damages caused by the most common florivore, a caterpillar, on floral outline, intra-floral colour pattern and floral scent, as well as on the amount of nectar. Following, we experimentally tested if the most severe florivory pattern affected hummingbird pollination. The feeding activity of the most common florivore did not alter the intra-floral colour pattern, floral scent, and nectar volume, but changed the corolla outline. However, this change did not affect hummingbird pollination. Despite visual floral cues being important for foraging in hummingbirds, our results emphasise that changes in the corolla outline had a neutral effect on pollination, allowing the maintenance of florivore–plant–pollinator systems without detriment to any partner.

Subsidized Common Agricultural Policy grazing jeopardizes the protection of biodiversity and Natura 2000 targeted species

AbstractIn Europe, Natura 2000 sites should protect threatened target species and networks of habitats. The management of Natura 2000 grasslands is often financed by subsidized grazing as part of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). We studied the extent of CAP grazing for Natura 2000 management and how this affects a butterfly target species (the marsh fritillary) and floral resources. Based on extensive capture‐mark‐release studies from 2 years in >550 ha grid cells in a 225 km2landscape in Sweden that includes 15 Natura 2000 sites, we compared marsh fritillary occurrence probabilities and population densities in ungrazed and CAP‐grazed habitats. Moreover, we analyzed how nectar resources and orchids were affected by CAP grazing based on plants records from 2347 sample plots. We estimated the proportion of butterfly habitats that were CAP‐grazed within and outside Natura 2000 sites. In total, 10 453 and 4417 butterflies were marked in 2017 and 2019, respectively. The grid cell occurrence probability was 1.8 times higher and the population density was 2.3 times higher in ungrazed compared with CAP‐grazed habitats in 2017, and the corresponding numbers for 2019 were 10 and 5.3 times higher, respectively. The number of flowering plants were on average 6.9 times higher and the density of orchids was 12.3 times higher in ungrazed habitats. Roughly, 30% (130 ha) of the marsh fritillary habitat was CAP grazed, and 97% of this grazing occurred within protected areas, of which 111 ha was situated within Natura 2000 area where the marsh fritillary is the target species. Alarmingly, we show that intense yearly CAP grazing, which is the dominant management strategy in all Natura 2000 sites, has devastating consequences for the target species and other aspects of biodiversity. Less intense management, which would benefit biodiversity, requires changes in the CAP, to allow more flexible payments for habitat management objectives and conservation of target species.

A Comparison of Springtime Pollen and Nectar Foraging in Honey Bees Kept in Urban and Agricultural Environments

Spring is an essential time for honey bee foraging in temperate climates. This is a period of increased brood rearing supporting colony growth and demands access to high-quality pollen and nectar resources. With the expansion of urban and agricultural landscapes, the availability of pollen and nectar producing flowers is declining in many areas. We aim to determine how patterns of spring pollen and nectar foraging differ between colonies surrounded by varying degrees of urban and agricultural intensity, as well as to assess the potential for nectar sampling to serve as a proxy for pollen collection. Thirteen apiaries in Central Ohio, along a gradient of urban and agricultural intensity, were monitored in spring of 2019 through the periodic collection of pollen and nectar samples and continuous colony weight monitoring. We found that spring honey bees in urban and agricultural areas gain comparable amounts of weight and use similar spring resources. Foraging was heavily focused on flowering trees and shrubs including Malus (apple), Salix (willow), and Prunus (cherry), until the beginning of clover bloom (Trifolium spp.). We also identified differences in pollen and nectar foraging within colonies, with nectar containing fewer species collected more evenly than matched pollen samples. These results demonstrate that honey bees in both agricultural and urban environments exhibit similar foraging patterns during the spring, and that plant species important for nectar collection are substantially different from plants important for pollen foraging, though limitations in nectar collection hinder our ability to draw definitive comparisons of pollen and nectar foraging in this region.

Flower strips, crop management and landscape composition effects on two aphid species and their natural enemies in faba bean

Wildflower strips and biodiversity-friendly management are promoted as ways of enhancing biodiversity and natural pest control in agroecosystems. Their efficacy for providing resources and shelters for natural enemies has been well studied, but little is known about how wildflower strip efficacy is mediated by local field management and landscape composition. In this study, we explored the effects of floral resources in perennial flower strips on faba bean aphids and their antagonists in contrasting cropping systems and landscapes. We surveyed 13 faba bean crops in northern France in 2019, and 19 in 2020. We sampled aphids (Aphis fabae and Acyrthosiphon pisum) and their antagonists (Syrphidae, Coccinellidae and mummy-forming parasitoids) on three dates during the spring, by visual observation. We assessed the floral resources provided by wildflower strips and spontaneous field margins and collected data on field management practices and land use in the surrounding landscape. We found that the percentage of flowering species in field edges providing accessible nectar to natural enemies had a positive effect on the abundance of Syrphidae and aphid mummies on faba bean plants. The positive effect of nectar resources on Syrphidae and aphid mummies decreased with increases in the proportion of semi-natural habitats in the landscape, but no interaction was observed with local management techniques. The growth rate of Aphis fabae and Acyrthosiphon pisum populations were unaffected by their antagonists. The growth rate of A. fabae populations was driven principally by local management practices (i.e. insecticide spraying and tillage). Conversely, the growth rate of A. pisum populations was driven principally by landscape composition (i.e. the proportion of semi-natural habitats and leguminous plants) and was negatively related to insecticide use. Nevertheless, insecticide spraying did not prevent increases in the growth rates of both aphid species, highlighting the need for alternative methods for controlling aphid populations.

Evaluating CAP wildflower strips: High‐quality seed mixtures significantly improve plant diversity and related pollen and nectar resources

Abstract Flower strips are a fundamental part of agri‐environment schemes (AESs) introduced by the European Union to counteract the loss of biodiversity and related ecosystem services in agricultural landscapes. Although vegetation composition of the strips is essential for most fauna groups, comprehensive studies analysing vegetation development and influencing factors are rare. From 2017 to 2019, we investigated the vegetation composition of 40 perennial wildflower strips (WFSs) implemented in 2015 or 2016, and 20 cereal fields without WFS across Saxony‐Anhalt, Germany. We analysed environmental factors on plot (cover of grasses, shading, soil fertility) and four landscape‐scale levels (habitat diversity, proportion of WFS and open habitats). The provision of nectar and pollen resources was estimated by the newly developed Pollinator Feeding Index (PFI). All strips had been implemented by farmers as AES with species‐rich seed mixtures comprising 30 native forbs. In all study years, forb species richness, cover and related nectar and pollen supply were much higher on WFSs than on controls, confirming the effectiveness of this AES. Although sown native forbs contributed the most to the high PFI values, spontaneously established forbs expanded the total range of species considerably, especially in winter and spring. While sown forb communities remained similar over time, spontaneous forbs showed a higher species turnover. Altogether, shading and grass cover had the greatest negative effect on the performance of the sown forbs. Landscape variables had only minor effects and were inconsistent in their importance across scale levels and years. Synthesis and applications. Successfully established perennial wildflower strips (WFSs) sown with species‐rich native seed mixtures provided a forb‐rich and diverse vegetation throughout the AES funding period of 5 years. By supplying feeding resources for pollinators under various landscape situations, WFSs have significant potential to promote farmland biodiversity and related ecosystem services. We recommend the mandatory use of species‐rich wildflower mixtures for perennial flower strips and to avoid their creation in heavily shaded field edges. Advisory services for farmers are necessary to prevent failures in WFS implementation and management and to improve their ecological effectiveness.

Characteristics of apiculture and meliponiculture in Banten Province, Indonesia: profile of beekeepers, bee and pollen diversity

There have been reports of global bees declining in the past years. However, the information on bees declining in Indonesia is lacking. Apiculture and meliponiculture have been practiced in Indonesia for centuries. This study aimed to obtain data of beekeepers and the recent beekeeping situation, including stingless bee species and their plant resources in Banten Province. Interviews were carried out on beekeepers in Pandeglang and Lebak Regencies. Bees from interviewed beekeepers were collected and identified. Pollens attached to the bees were also identified at the family level. Apiculture and meliponiculture in Banten were entirely practiced by men in their productive ages (<5-year experience). Beekeepers placed the beehive around the house to keep an efficient observation and ensure the sufficiency of nutrition for the bees. Based on information collected from the beekeepers, pests and climate were to have affected the population of bees and production of honey. Bee that favored the most by beekeepers was Tetragonula laeviceps. Based on the pollen identification, Arecaceae, Poaceae, and Fabaceae were the most visited plant families by all bee species. Managed bees shared similar nutrition (nectar and pollen) resources. In addition, the beekeeping in Banten tends to increase in recent 5 years.

The Structure and Dynamics of Endangered Forest Bird Communities in the Mariana Islands

I studied population densities of forest bird communities in the Mariana Islands of Saipan, Aguiguan and Sarigan in order to evaluate hypotheses concerning seasonal shifts in populations, habitat effects on densities, inter-island differences in densities, social group size and underlying reasons for community structuring. With the exception of one species, I found no evidence to support the hypothesis that seasonal shifts occur in populations. Hence, this island system differs in this regard from mainland tropical forests. I also found, contrary to theory, no evidence that the presence of altered habitat permits populations to be greater than they would be in their absence, as disturbed habitat had far lower densities of most species than native forest. Furthermore, I found no support for the hypothesis that social group size differs seasonally as a consequence of differential breeding activity, which is again contrary to findings for mainland tropical forests. A high density of nectar resources on two islands appeared responsible for high population densities of the Micronesian Myzomela on them. Inter-island density comparisons showed strong evidence for there being unfilled niches on Sarigan, thereby making the island a favorable site for species translocations. Examination of the prehistoric composition of Marianas forest bird communities indicated that they once resembled in density structure those of the comparatively pristine Palau Islands. Removing ecologically similar but now absent species from the original Mariana communities likely resulted in reduced competition for resources in ways that increased niche breadth and, thus, populations. The wholesale loss of species in the Marianas has led to communities in which three ecologically versatile species now account for the vast majority of individuals in the community.

Climate Change-Induced Stress Reduce Quantity and Alter Composition of Nectar and Pollen From a Bee-Pollinated Species (Borago officinalis, Boraginaceae).

In temperate ecosystems, elevated temperatures, and drought occur especially during spring and summer, which are crucial periods for flowering, pollination, and reproduction of a majority of temperate plants. While many mechanisms may underlie pollinator decline in the wake of climate change, the interactive effects of temperature and water stress on the quantity and quality of floral nectar and pollen resources remain poorly studied. We investigated the impact of temperature rise (+3 and +6°C) and water stress (soil humidity lower than 15%) on the floral resources produced by the bee-pollinated species Borago officinalis. Nectar volume decreased with both temperature rise and water stress (6.1 ± 0.5 μl per flower under control conditions, 0.8 ± 0.1 μl per flower under high temperature and water stress conditions), resulting in a 60% decrease in the total quantity of nectar sugars (mg) produced per flower. Temperature rise but not water stress also induced a 50% decrease in pollen weight per flower but a 65% increase in pollen polypeptide concentration. Both temperature rise and water stress increased the total amino acid concentration and the essential amino acid percentage in nectar but not in pollen. In both pollen and nectar, the relative percentage of the different amino acids were modified under stresses. We discuss these modifications in floral resources in regards to plant–pollinator interactions and consequences on plant pollination success and on insect nutritional needs.

Foraging Behaviour of Some Papilionid Butterflies in Bhawal and Madhupur Sal Forests of Bangladesh

Foraging behaviour of nine papilionid butterflies have been studied from two moist deciduous sal forests viz. Bhawal and Madhupur from central part of Bangladesh. Papilionid butterflies were found to visit 156 flowering plant species belong to 39 plant families. Dependency of papilionid butterflies on flowering plants varied from family to family with high dependency on family Asteraceae (15%) followed by Rubiaceae (8%), Rutaceae (6%), Verbenaceae (6%), Apocynaceae (6%) and Fabaceae (6%). Although most of the plant species (72 species, 47.68%) were visited by single butterfly species but some were also visited by multiple species of butterflies (e.g., Chromolaena odorata by 9 species, followed by Mikania cordata and Lantana camara by 8 and 7 species, respectively). Ninety eight percent (153 out of 156 species) of the nectar resources were dicotyledonous in origin but two percent plant species (three out of 156 species under three families) were monocotyledonous. Six floral attributes such as plants life forms, nature, perennation, origin, corolla shape and flower massing contributed butterflies significantly to visit plants for nectaring. J. Biodivers. Conserv. Bioresour. Manag. 2020, 6(2): 55-68

Agricultural Techniques, Flower Strips and Landscape Composition Affect the Dynamics of Two Aphid Species and Their Predators Differently in Faba Bean Crops

Wildflower strips and biodiversity-friendly management are promoted as ways of enhancing biodiversity and natural pest control in agroecosystems. Their efficacy for providing resources and shelters for natural enemies has been well studied, but little is known about how wildflower strip efficacy is mediated by local field management and landscape composition. In this study, we explored the effects of floral resources in perennial flower strips on faba bean aphids and their antagonists in contrasting cropping systems and landscapes. We surveyed 13 faba bean crops in northern France in 2019, and 19 in 2020. We sampled aphids ( Aphis fabae and Acyrthosiphon pisum ) and their antagonists (Syrphidae, Coccinellidae and mummy-forming parasitoids) on three dates during the spring, by visual observation. We assessed the floral resources provided by wildflower strips and spontaneous field margins and collected data on field management practices and land use in the surrounding landscape. We found that the percentage of flowering species in field edges providing accessible nectar to predators had a positive effect on the abundance of Syrphidae and aphid mummies on faba bean plants. The positive effect of nectar resources on Syrphidae and parasitoids decreased with increases in the proportion of semi-natural habitats in the landscape, but no interaction was observed with local management techniques. The temporal dynamics of Aphis fabae and Acyrthosiphon pisum populations were unaffected by their antagonists. The dynamics of A. fabae populations was driven principally by local management practices (i.e. insecticide spraying and tillage). Conversely, the temporal dynamics of A. pisum populations was driven principally by landscape composition (i.e. the proportion of semi-natural habitats and leguminous plants) and was negatively related to insecticide use. Nevertheless, insecticide spraying did not prevent increases in the growth rates of both aphid species, highlighting the need for alternative methods for controlling aphid populations.

What is that smell? Hummingbirds avoid foraging on resources with defensive insect compounds

Hummingbirds utilize visual cues to locate flowers, but little is known about the role olfaction plays in nectar foraging despite observations that hummingbirds avoid resources occupied by certain insects. We investigated the behavioral responses of both wild and captive hummingbirds to olfactory cues of hymenopteran floral visitors, including native wood ants (Formica francoeuri), invasive Argentine ants (Linepithema humile), and European honeybees (Apis mellifera). We demonstrate for the first time that hummingbirds use olfaction to make foraging decisions when presented with insect-derived chemical cues under field and aviary conditions. Both wild and captive hummingbirds avoided foraging on feeders with defensive chemicals of F. francoeuri and aggregation pheromones of L. humile, but showed no response to honeybee cuticular hydrocarbons. Our experiments demonstrate the importance of olfaction in shaping hummingbird foraging decisions.Significance statementRecent reviews reveal that avian olfaction is not just limited to vultures and a few taxa. We demonstrate that a very charismatic group, hummingbirds, avoid defensive and aggregatory chemical cues from insects present at nectar resources. Olfactory cues can provide critical information about the presence and potential threat of insect floral visitors. This study raises new questions about the underrated importance of olfaction in avian foraging and specifically, hummingbird foraging.

Developing payment-by-results approaches for agri-environment schemes: Experience from an arable trial in England

There is increasing interest in the potential for payment-by-results approaches to be adopted more widely in agri-environment schemes to address some of the limitations of conventional action-based approaches. To date, researchers have almost exclusively applied the approach in grassland farming systems. This paper reports on the results from an English, pure payment-by-results pilot scheme that tested the delivery of two environmental objectives: provision of winter bird food for farmland birds and provision of pollen and nectar resources for pollinating insects in arable farming systems, and incorporated farmer self-assessments. The method employed an assessment of environmental outcomes using an experimental design, recording the number of plants/seed heads per quadrat for specified species and an analysis of farmers’ attitudes using a qualitative survey. The results from 15 farms revealed improved environmental performance compared to similar measures implemented under conventional agri-environment schemes. The analysis also revealed a high correlation of farmer self-assessment of results with expert assessments. Survey findings also identified farmers’ views on the advantages (flexibility and freedom, fairness) and disadvantages (risk of failure and non-payment) of such an approach.

Determination of Nectar Resources through Body Surface Pollen Analysis: A Study with the Stingless Bee Tetragonula iridipennis Smith (Apidae: Meliponini) in West Bengal, India

Knowledge about floral resources is essential for bee management and conservation. Pollen analysis of honey is the most traditional method for determining the nectar resources of a bee species. However, the collection of honey samples is difficult in cavity-nesting natural stingless bee colonies. Furthermore, it is detrimental to the wild bee’s colony and may threaten their survivability. We analyzed adhered body surface pollen of incoming nectar foragers (which were smeared incidentally during nectar foraging) as an alternative method to determine nectariferous flora of Tetragonula iridipennis in West Bengal, India. By this method, we have identified 75 pollen types. The number of obtained pollen types was lower in the human-altered habitats of Midnapore city (44 pollen types) than the semi-natural habitats of Garhbeta (71 pollen types). Excluding a few pollen types of non-nectariferous plants, most of the pollen types came from nectariferous plants of both crop and non-crop species. Non-crop flowering plants (viz. Ailanthus excelsa, Borassus flabellifer, Eucalyptus tereticornis, Lannea coromandelica, Peltophorum pterocarpum, and Tectona grandis) provided a significant amount of nectar to the bee species and, therefore, play an important role in the conservation of the bee species.

Restored and remnant Banksia woodlands elicit different foraging behavior in avian pollinators.

Pollinators and the pollination services they provide are critical for seed set and self‐sustainability of most flowering plants. Despite this, pollinators are rarely assessed in restored plant communities, where their services are largely assumed to re‐establish. Bird–pollinator richness, foraging, and interaction behavior were compared between natural and restored Banksia woodland sites in Western Australia to assess their re‐establishment in restored sites. These parameters were measured for natural communities of varying size and degree of fragmentation, and restored plant communities of high and low complexity for three years, in the summer and winter flowering of Banksia attenuata and B. menziesii, respectively. Bird visitor communities varied in composition, richness, foraging movement distances, and aggression among sites. Bird richness and abundance were lowest in fragmented remnants. Differences in the composition were associated with the size and degree of fragmentation in natural sites, but this did not differ between seasons. Restored sites and their adjacent natural sites had similar species composition, suggesting proximity supports pollinator re‐establishment. Pollinator foraging movements were influenced by the territorial behavior of different species. Using a network analysis approach, we found foraging behavior varied, with more frequent aggressive chases observed in restored sites, resulting in more movements out of the survey areas, than observed in natural sites. Aggressors were larger‐bodied Western Wattlebirds (Anthochaera chrysoptera) and New Holland Honeyeaters (Phylidonyris novaehollandiae) that dominated nectar resources, particularly in winter. Restored sites had re‐established pollination services, albeit with clear differences, as the degree of variability in the composition and behavior of bird pollinators for Banksias in the natural sites created a broad completion target against which restored sites were assessed. The abundance, diversity, and behavior of pollinator services to remnant and restored Banksia woodland sites were impacted by the size and degree of fragmentation, which in turn influenced bird–pollinator composition, and were further influenced by seasonal changes between summer and winter. Consideration of the spatial and temporal landscape context of restored sites, along with plant community diversity, is needed to ensure the maintenance of the effective movement of pollinators between natural remnant woodlands and restored sites.