Nature Of Scientific Knowledge Research Articles

Exploring Ethiopian Secondary School Science Teachers’ Conceptions about the Nature of Scientific Knowledge (NOSK)

This study examined secondary school science teachers’ conceptions of the nature of scientific knowledge (NOSK). The participants were convenient samples consisting of 48 (M = 38, F = 10) teachers from three secondary schools. An open-ended questionnaire was administered to collect data. Qualitative analysis involved comparing teachers’ responses to experts’ views on NOSK. Frequency counts and percentages were also used to describe the NOSK conceptions of participants. Based on the findings, the teachers held informed conceptions on two NOSK tenets and naïve conceptions on four of them. The participants generally held a naïve conception of NOSK, as evidenced by the fact that their conception aligned with informed conception only on two of the seven assessed NOSK aspects. Future research should use large samples, employing a quantitative approach to reveal secondary school teachers’ NOSK conceptions.

Potential of socio-humanitarian disciplines in training future engineers: students’ opinions analyzed

Introduction. Higher education is a key factor for societal development; new challenges associated with ultra-fast socio-technological transformations create new demands for professionals, especially in engineering. In addition to knowledge of natural and technical sciences, a modern engineer is to possess a wide range of so-called flexible competencies. In this regard, the issue of how these skills can be developed becomes particularly relevant. In particular, experts in higher education development believe that sociohumanitarian disciplines are indispensable for solving this issue. The study aims to assess the potential of socio-humanitarian disciplines in training future engineers and to outline proposals for optimizing their role in education. Research methods. The study had two stages: a comparative analysis of Russian and foreign research and expert assessments regarding challenges to modern engineering education, and an assessment of the influence that specific disciplines of engineering education have on its quality; a survey-research of 548 students of Saint Petersburg Mining University (Russian Federation). Research methods: survey, comparative analysis, pedagogical consultation. Research results. More than 60% of students positively assess the potential of socio-humanitarian disciplines, considering them essential for the development of a wide range of communication and cognitive skills. At the same time, 60% of students noted that the teaching methods used and the content of work programs do not always meet their expectations. Conclusion. The survey results confirm the opinion of experts that modern technical education is to be more practice-oriented and address current problems of modern society in order to be competitive. Based on the results of the study, proposals were formulated for solving the identified problems in engineering education.

Teaching Reform of Basic Medicine Curriculum by Integrating the Perspective of Curriculum Civics and Politics in the Context of Healthy China

Basic medicine is the foundation of basic knowledge of medical science, life science, and natural science, and is the basis for training medical talents. It can help students correctly understand the relationship between disease and health, and is of great significance under the perspective of the Healthy China strategy. However, there are still some deficiencies in the current teaching, and insufficient attention has been paid to civics and politics. Thus, it is necessary to carry out curriculum reform in order to enable students to better understand medical knowledge and master medical skills, to ensure the development of medical education, and to play an important role in basic medicine. This study combines the necessity of curriculum reform under the perspective of civics and politics and puts forward a teaching reform strategy suitable for the development of contemporary medicine to provide a direction for the educational development of basic medicine.

The emergence of synergistic complexities in Russia: A request for new university courses

The article explains the request for new approaches in the higher education as determined by the emergence of the “order out of chaos” (I. Prigogine) in the form of synergistic complexities. Their underestimation during perestroika and liberal reforms led to the crisis in the educational system and society. Until now, these actual issues have not been sufficiently represented in the educational programs of universities: students need synergistic knowledge that connects the achievements of social sciences, humanities and natural sciences and allows to analyze the nature of complex, non-linearly realities and manage them. The author considers the following synergistic realities: social-techno/digital-natural hybrids, complex spaces and time, interference risks and hybrid vulnerabilities, complex social identity, complexities of social consciousness, good and evil, scientific knowledge and education. To analyze the nature of synergistic realities, the author suggests a theoretical-methodological combination of three meta-paradigms: the theory of synergetics, which includes social-humanitarian and natural-scientific knowledge; theories that study the mutual influence of global and national-local factors; theories of nonlinear development and metamorphization. The author makes conclusions about the need for interdisciplinary and post-disciplinary courses for the study of synergistically complex realities, focusing on the Russian cultural specifics, which would allow to equip students with knowledge about complex causality; to form a creative personality with a set of cultural and professional competencies necessary for the preservation and reproduction of the Russian synergistic complexities with their national-cultural specifics; to develop a humanistic worldview and a socially responsible attitude towards society, macroand micro-worlds of nature and technological innovation, thus, contributing to the sovereign development of the country.

THE ESSENCE OF MIND STRATEGY IN THE RELATIONSHIP WITH NATURE: HUMAN-NATURE-WISDOM UNITY

A systematic approach requires combining the knowledge of related subjects (e.g., natural sciences) into a whole and making conditions for the learners to research, draw conclusions, process abundant and diverse information, improve and change, complete their knowledge, i.e., eliminate common/traditional subject barriers, refuse narrow empiricism. The field of science education is wide, complex and diverse. It is not only the transmission of natural science knowledge but also ecological, environmental, antidrug, sexual, antinicotine education, healthy lifestyle training, etc. Today’s society is dealing with very relevant issues of nature protection, nature conservation, ecology, environmental protection, and other problems. All this requires a new approach from all of us, the efforts of various field specialists, eliminating all separating barriers. Global problems are a common concern for all of us. This is just because not a single problem is isolated from another, most of them are intertwined, fully determined, united in their nature. Therefore, knowing (clarifying) connections is complicated and hardly achievable. Their solution is possible only when they are comprehensively analysed by closely linking them together.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC RESEARCH IN NATIONAL LIBRARIES OF UKRAINE IN 2016–2020: SUMMARY ANALYSIS

In Viktor Sokolov’s article «Bibliographic research in the national libraries of Ukraine in 2016–2020: a summary analysis» based on the analysis of materials of scientific publications and reports on the scientific research work of national libraries, the state and directions of the development of bibliographic research are summarized and highlighted using the example of the characteristics of the study books in certain specified institutions. The article clarifies the place and significance of bibliographic research in the study and popularization of specialized funds of national libraries, as well as in the preparation of relevant materials for the State Register of National Cultural Heritage; the topics, peculiarities of conducting and organizing bibliographic studies in the researched library institutions are disclosed; the importance of the study of rare and valuable books, library collections and book collections for the development of national culture is confirmed. The purpose of the proposed article is to characterize the content and directions of bibliographic research carried out in the national libraries of Ukraine in 2016–2020. The research methodology consists in applying both general scientific research methods (description, comparison, analogy, deduction, induction, analysis, etc.) and historical ones (historical-comparative, historical-typological, chronological, etc.). The scientific novelty of the work is that the state and nature of bibliographic research in the national libraries of Ukraine in 2016–2020 was analyzed for the first time; their place and importance in the research work of the mentioned institutions is substantiated. Conclusions. It is substantiated that in the period 2016–2020 in the national libraries of Ukraine, the development of scientific research work in the field of bibliography was characterized by the activation of research in historical, theoretical and methodological directions, among which, in particular, the issue of the creation and functioning of the book as a type of communicative- cognitive tool occupied an important place activities aimed at meeting information needs by means of printed and electronic information. It has been established that the specified bibliographic studies can be classified: by the nature of scientific knowledge into fundamental and applied; according to the scope or limits of the implementation on local, regional, national level; according to the time of implementation into permanent and episodic. It has been proven that medium-term local applied scientific research, designed for 1–3 years, prevailed, and the subject of bibliographic research was aimed not only at ensuring the disclosure of the informational and source- research resource of book funds, but also at solving theoretical fundamental scientific problems. Based on the analysis of the topics of scientific projects, publications and reports at scientific and practical conferences organized by national libraries, it is substantiated that a significant part of bibliographic research was devoted to the historical aspect of the development of book collections and the libraries themselves; analysis of a set of prints by a certain feature; study of individual types and types of publications. It was found out that studies related to bibliography were actively developing, in particular, in the art of books, book historical studies, publishing history, bibliographic studies, library history, Ukrainian history, and other fields of social sciences. It is motivated that bibliographic studies contribute to the mutual enrichment of these sciences, significantly expand the cognitive capabilities of their methods, and have a positive effect on the improvement of theory.

INNOVATIVE APPROACHES OF NATURAL SCIENTIFIC TRAINING OF FUTURE TEACHERS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

The presented article analyzes and characterizes innovative approaches to the natural science training of future physical education teachers. Modernization of education prioritizes the formation of a specialist of high quality and competence, capable of innovative search for ways of self-realization in the conditions of continuous integra- tion of Ukraine into the European educational space. Strengthening the health potential of youth, providing a differentiated approach to groups of children of different ages, fore- casting their needs and motivation for physical development and self-improvement de- pends on the physical culture specialist.We have developed an integrated system of medical and biological education to im- prove the quality and competitiveness of a physical culture specialist in the labor market. Thus, we made an attempt to construct the content of integrated natural science educa- tional disciplines and built an end-to-end logical-didactic structure, updating knowledge in accordance with the new achievements of the disciplines of the natural science cycle; strengthening the relationship between fundamentality and professional orientation of education; ensuring variability and alternative, humanization and democratization of the educational process; improvement of natural science education and establishment of a close connection with sports and specialized training. In this study, the main directions, factors, indicators and criteria for the intensification of student learning with the use of innovative and information and communication technologies were identified.The modernizing ideas of the philosophical interpretation of human value are at the basis of this research, the humanitarian significance of natural scientific knowledge is actualized, which opens up wide possibilities of interdisciplinary and transsubjective integration for use in the process of training modern specialists and achieving high sports results. We have proven the effectiveness of scientific competence, which is ensured by creating an innovative educational environment characterized by openness and autonomy, information saturation and integrability, flexibility and synchronization, multi-vector and creativity. Thanks to the use of innovative approaches in the training of future teachers of physical education, cognitive activity increases, creative thinking and professionalism develop, innovative technologies of physical education are much better assimilated, and most importantly, the mastering of the professional competencies of pedagogues-scientists, pedagogues-innovators takes place. We have proven that the concept of training physical culture specialists of a new type requires mastering an end- to-end multivariate cycle of creative work, from the search for new principles and ideas to the development and implementation of new technologies based on the maximum automation of information processing processes and their practical implementation.We recommend that when planning the educational process in higher education institutions of the physical culture profile, clearly choose and take into account the relationships with previous and subsequent disciplines, adjust the content of the disciplines being studied in order to prevent duplication of educational material. The integrative approach is the most predictable and necessary, we will see the solution to the problem of integration in a close combination of natural science and sports-specialized training. Natural science disciplines in general should include professionally oriented knowledge, peculiarities of teaching and education methods. With such an approach, the assimilation of professionally oriented disciplines takes place through the principle of connecting theory with practice, thus actualizing knowledge and forming skills in professional and pedagogical activities.

ŽALIOJI PAMOKA „SKAIDYTOJAI IR JŲ VEIKLA“ KETVIRTOS KLASĖS MOKINIAMS: BŪSIMŲJŲ MOKYTOJŲ PATIRTYS

Natural science is a unique school subject that cannot be carried out without the implementation of real examples from nature. Despite this, in today’s Lithuanian schools, the lessons of natural science are still mostly organized in a classroom environment, without taking into account the benefits of practical, experiential learning. All over the world, learning outside the classroom is perceived as the key to the formation of students’ social skills. Also, education in the natural environment allows to connect and deepen existing natural science knowledge, fosters a positive relationship with nature and creates a holistic understanding of human impact on the environment. One of the models for organizing a lesson in a "non-traditional environment" is a so-called green lesson, during which the learning process is organized in nature and theoretical knowledge is supplemented by exploratory activities. According to Verbickienė (2022), a correct initial understanding of the environment and its processes helps to discover and recognize the world around us and forms the appropriate moral attitudes. This article presents the plan of a green lesson conducted in a school in Vilnius on the topic "Decomposers and their activities" for the 4th-grade students and introduces the materials needed for the lesson activities. The experience of organizing this green lesson is also discussed, the strengths and limitations of the activities are identified, and an analysis of the students' work is presented. Keywords: green lesson, education outside the classroom, natural environment, natural science education, decomposers

NUCLEAR TERRORISM: A THEORETICAL MODEL OF THE LEGAL CONCEPT

The aim of the work is to establish the content and definition of the theoretical and legal concept of “nuclear terrorismˮ based on the consideration of the legal model of its acts and the analysis of the provisions of international and Russian law with a variety of approaches to the issues of legal understanding of this term. Topicality of understanding the problem of nuclear terrorism as an argument for a significant risk to state and public security in 2022 has increased dramatically due to the aggravation of relations between Western countries and Russia. In the process of analysing the sources of law and scientific literature, the author singled out two approaches to the definition of nuclear terrorism. One approach is focused on natural science knowledge (natural science), the other is based on the norms of law (legal). Such approaches determine the theoretical directions of the formation of the legal policy of the state in the field of countering nuclear terrorism. Taking into account the dynamics of law, a theoretically substantiated method is proposed for forming the conceptual basis for the legal understanding of nuclear terrorism as a phenomenon that is complex in the forms of its manifestation. As a result of a comparative study of legislation and doctrinal positions, an integrated methodological approach to understanding nuclear terrorism is proposed based on the legal model of acts of nuclear terrorism, based on well-established norms of international and Russian legislation.

МУЛЬТИДИСЦИПЛІНАРНИЙ ПІДХІД ЯК ГОЛОВНА УМОВА ЕФЕКТИВНОЇ РЕАЛІЗАЦІЇ СУЧАСНОЇ МОДЕЛІ ПРИРОДНИЧОНАУКОВОЇ ОСВІТИ В УКРАЇНІ

The article examines the problems of natural science education in Ukraine and their negative impact on the state of the intellectual sphere of society in the direction of the creation, dissemination and use of new scientific knowledge, as well as its transformation in the conditions of rapid changes in the global world space. It has been established that today the main problem of natural science education is its preservation without losing the high level at which it was distinguished in the past. It was noted that the main shortcoming of natural science education is the separation of disciplines of the natural science cycle with the maximum concentration on narrowly specialized training of specialists. It has been proven that one of the most effective modern models of formation of natural scientific knowledge is an educational model built on the basis of a multidisciplinary approach, which will ensure optimal integration of natural scientific disciplines and thorough fundamental training of specialists who have chosen the natural scientific branch of knowledge for professional activity. It is proposed to pay special attention to the preparation of interdisciplinary master’s programs. It is emphasized that in the conditions of a multidisciplinary approach in the implementation of natural science education, the importance of its integration with academic science is significantly increased.

INTERDISCIPLINARITY AS AN INNOVATIVE APPROACH TO TEACHING NATURAL SCIENCES

The article "Interdisciplinarity as an Innovative Approach to Teaching Natural Sciences" explores the importance of an interdisciplinary approach in teaching natural sciences. The authors argue that the interdisciplinary approach allows for a deeper understanding of the subjects and involvement of students in active work with more sources of information. The article focuses on how interdisciplinarity can be applied in the teaching of science subjects such as physics, chemistry, and biology. The authors provide specific examples of how these different disciplines can be integrated to create a holistic approach to learning. For example, you can learn physical laws by applying them to chemical experiments or study biological processes using physical principles.
 The authors also explore the challenges that arise when applying an interdisciplinary approach to teaching science, including the need to ensure sufficient time for in-depth study of each discipline. However, with the help of innovative teaching methods, such as the use of interactive materials and computer programs, it is possible to reduce this challenge and ensure effective learning. Natural sciences are the key to understanding the world around us, because they help us unravel natural laws and determine the relationships between various phenomena. Teaching science can be challenging because it often requires a deep understanding of many different topics.
 One of the innovative approaches to teaching natural sciences is interdisciplinarity. It is an approach that combines different disciplines in order to understand a problem or phenomenon from a deeper and more complex perspective. The relevance of the research lies in the fact that in the modern conditions of the development of science and technology, an interdisciplinary approach in the teaching of natural sciences is of great importance. This allows students to expand their horizons and cover a wider range of knowledge, which contributes to their further professional development and career success.
 In addition, the article suggests new approaches and teaching methods that may be useful for science teachers. The practical value of the article lies in the fact that it provides recommendations for the application of an interdisciplinary approach in teaching natural sciences, which will help teachers create more interesting and effective lessons for students. In addition, the article can be useful for students who want to broaden their horizons and increase their knowledge in natural sciences.

Competition of educational and research projects of natural science orientation as a means of developing the cognitive interest of pedagogical university students

The development of the interest of students of humanitarian profiles in preparation for obtaining natural science knowledge is an urgent problem of the modern higher pedagogical school. There is a constant search and testing of techniques, means and methods to solve this problem. The article considers the competition of educational and research projects of natural science orientation as a means of developing students' cognitive interest. The authors shared their experience of organizing and conducting such a competition at a pedagogical university, as well as the results of its impact on the attitude of future teachers to obtaining scientific knowledge about the world around them. Examples of topics of educational and research projects of a natural science orientation, carried out by students studying in the humanities, as well as a list of questions that were asked to students in order to identify the nature of their attitude to the study of natural sciences, are presented. The conducted research confirmed the positive role of the competition of educational and research projects in solving the problem of developing the cognitive interest of students of a pedagogical university. The presented materials can serve as a basis for further research in the field of teaching methods of various university disciplines and the organization of independent work of students in higher education.

Biology and biography: revisiting the biosocial pathogenesis of non-communicable diseases

The modern idea of a disease as a situation, an event, increasingly includes the social side along with the biological one. Although the biomedical side of the problem still dominates, factors such as adherence, decision-making and informed consent or refusal, psychosocial aspects of etiology and pathogenesis and other non-biological disease components become part of care provision. Of course, the social side was predominant before the development of evidencebased medicine. But in the modern context, the development of the humanities and social sciences, as well as neuroscience and psychology, makes it possible to take into account the biographical narrative of the patient’s personality as an integral part of the doctor-patient relationship. At the intersection of "biological" and "biographical" in the disease nature there are a number of factors, such as loneliness, stress, emotions, that reify, enact a person’s social self into somatic pathology or somatic health. The problem of combining humanities and natural science knowledge is very complex due to the fundamental difference in the methods of study, but for modern medicine such a connection is absolutely necessary.

LITERATURE REVIEW: PENILAIAN DIRI DAN PENGAPLIKASIAN TECHNOLOGICAL PEDAGOGICAL AND CONTENT KNOWLEDGE (TPACK) PADA PEMBELAJARAN ILMU PENGETAHUAN ALAM DAN SOSIAL (IPAS) DI MADRASAH IBTIDAIYAH

This literature review study is motivated by the challenges of world development, especially in the development of learning interpretations that are increasingly demanding the availability of human resources (HR) who master science and technology (IPTEK). Technological and Content Knowledge can be an alternative to be used as a reference for educators in the context of developing learning with a new, better model. This study aims to gather information from several articles related to self-assessment and to apply technological pedagogical and content knowledge in learning natural and social sciences (IPAS) in elementary schools. The results of this literature review can be used as reference material in the development of learning tools in the current 4.0 era. Various studies related to technology pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), both of which are important for developing the professional skills of a teacher and prospective teachers. Based on the literature review, it was found that among the needs in the development of learning tools lies in the ability of an educator to master the TPACK (Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge) concept.

ЭКОЛОГИЯ БЫТИЯ ЧЕЛОВЕКА: ИТОГИ УЧЕБНОГО СПЕЦКУРСА

The article presents the results of the educational special course “Ecology of human existence” for bachelors of the fi nal year of study at the Department of Philosophy of Chelyabinsk State University. The structure and brief description of the course, the results of the survey are refl ected. Analysis of the input and fi nal questioning of students helped to create a picture that refl ects the degree of mastering the proposed material by students. The course ended with the successful completion of the creative task of writing scientifi c articles in co-authorship with the teacher, which were published in the collection of scientifi c papers of the student conference. The compilation and implementation of the special course is based on an eco-humanistic approach that goes beyond traditional ecology as purely natural science knowledge into the fi eld of interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary, as well as the level of philosophical reflection.

On the Specificity of Humanitarian Knowledge

The article discusses the features and specifics of humanitarian knowledge. Natural-scientific and humanitarian complement each other. Both are important for understanding the world and man. Natural scientific knowledge is knowledge about the object, about the being, about what is and exists. Humanitarian knowledge is knowledge about a person, a subject, it is knowledge about what should be and about what will be. Natural scientific knowledge is limited to an explanation of what is happening. Humanitarian knowledge gives us an understanding of what is, what will be. Humanitarian knowledge is designed to warn society about the difficulties that await it, to develop alternative solutions to modern problems. Their meaning and purpose is to provide reliable social forecasting.

How do Metafictive Fictional Science Picturebooks Introduce Natural Science Knowledge to Children?—Wolves and The Magic School Bus: Inside a Hurricane

How do Metafictive Fictional Science Picturebooks Introduce Natural Science Knowledge to Children?—Wolves and The Magic School Bus: Inside a Hurricane

Freud and the mind-brain problem

ABSTRACT The author argues that we can better understand Freud’s perspective on the mind-brain problem by considering his Kantian view on natural scientific knowledge, namely that there is an essential limit to our knowledge of physical reality. This means that even though conscious states are identical with brain states, it is impossible to explain the events’ conscious properties physically. Further, it is argued that if Freud took an identity theory for granted, it is not fair to criticize him for attempting to construct neuro-psychological mechanistic explanations of psychoanalytic phenomena. It is concluded that Freud’s perspectives on consciousness, the mind-brain problem, and the nature of psychological explanation are philosophically sophisticated and interesting also from a contemporary point of view.

Поиск способов интеграции элементов естественно-научных знаний в образовательный процесс воскресной школы

The present article attempts to answer the question of the possibility and pedagogical expediency of harmonizing religious and natural science knowledge in the classroom within the framework of the parish education of children. For quite a long time, natural science knowledge was used as a powerful means of atheistic propaganda and destruction of any thought about faith and religion among the people. At present, there remain difficulties in combining scientific knowledge and religious faith in science and educational practice. As a result of the materialistic approach to teaching natural science subjects at school, the young believers reject the biblical picture of the world offered in Sunday School as contradicting scientific knowledge and suffer from ideological dualism.The purpose of the present work is to substantiate the necessity and value of integrating elements of natural science knowledge into the educational process of Sunday School through effective ways of its implementation. The article reveals the theoretical aspects of the indicated problem and describes practical methods of integrating natural science knowledge into religious education within the framework of parish activity. Such forms of integration as natural science laboratories of a young naturalist, master classes, creative workshops and others are singled out as the most efficient. Basing on the available practical experience, the article presents the real and expected educational effects and highlights the pedagogical conditions that contribute to their achievement.The author expresses the hope that due to the integration of elements of natural science knowledge into the religious education of children, it will be possible to avoid the ideological and religious crisis among teenage schoolchildren and reduce the number of children who abandon the faith planted by parents and teachers and leave the confines of the church.

Сторінки історії Національного музею природознавства (Париж) в медальєрному мистецтві

The article briefly covers the pages of the history of the Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle (Paris, France), which was established in 1793, inheriting the material base and collections of one of the oldest botanical gardens in the world—the Royal Garden of Medicinal Plants. Contribution to the development of the Royal Garden of Medicinal Plants was made by its leaders and employees: Guy de La Brosse, Guy Crescent Fagon, Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, Pierre Chirac, the family of French botanists de Jussieu, Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, and Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre. After its foundation, the museum was managed, among others, by Louis Jean-Marie D’Aubenton, Bernard Germain Étienne de Laville-sur-Illon, comte de Lacépède, George-Léopold-Chrétien-Frédéric-Dagobert Cuvier, Michel Eugène Chevreul, Adolphe Théodore Brongniart, André Marie Constant Duméril, Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Alphonse Milne-Edwards, Jean Octave Edmond Perrier, Achille Joseph Urbain, Maurice Alfred Fontaine, and Jean Dorst. The heyday of the scientific activity of the Museum was during the long years of leadership of Michel Eugène Chevrel. Table medals of France and the USA, researched and described by the authors of the article, were created to honour these famous scientists. Attention is also drawn to modern tourist medals (tokens) dedicated to the Museum’s facilities: the Garden of the Plants, the Great Evolution Gallery, the Palaeontological Museum (Galleries of Comparative Anatomy and Palaeontology), the Botanical Garden Zoo, and the Vincennes Zoo. The results of the analysis of the medals made it possible to display in a new plane the most vivid pages of the history of the Museum, the function of which is teaching, research, and dissemination of natural science knowledge, its modernity, biographies of outstanding personalities who worked in it. Most of the medals were first introduced into scientific biological circulation. The obtained information once again confirmed the possibility of using objects that are studied by special historical disciplines (in this case, the section of numismatics, medal art) for the study of the history of science.