Natural Properties Research Articles

Electrochemical Investigation of the Stability of Poly-Phosphocholinated Liposomes.

Poly[2-(methacryloyloxy)ethyl phosphorylcholine] liposomes (pMPC liposomes) gained attention during the last few years because of their potential use in treating osteoarthritis. pMPC liposomes that serve as boundary lubricants are intended to restore the natural lubrication properties of articular cartilage. For this purpose, it is important that the liposomes remain intact and do not fuse and spread as a lipid film on the cartilage surface. Here, we investigate the stability of the liposomes and their interaction with two types of solid surfaces, gold and carbon, by using cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). With the aid of a hydrophilic species used as an electroactive probe in the solution, the charge transfer characteristics of the electrode surfaces are obtained. Additionally, from EIS, the capacitance characteristics of the surfaces are derived. No decrease of the peak currents and no displacement of the peak potentials to greater overpotentials are observed in the CV experiments. No decrease in the apparent capacitance and increase in the charge transfer resistance is observed in the EIS experiments. On the contrary, all parameters in both CV and EIS do change in the opposite direction. The obtained results confirm that there is only physical adsorption without fusion and spreading of the pMPC liposomes and without the formation of lipid films on the surfaces of both gold and carbon electrodes.

Ribosomal protein L17 functions as an antimicrobial protein in amphioxus

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), characterized by their cationic nature and amphiphilic properties, play a pivotal role in inhibiting the biological activity of microbes. Currently, only a fraction of the antimicrobial potential within the ribosomal protein family has been explored, despite its extensive membership and resemblance to AMPs. Herein we demonstrated that amphioxus RPL17 (BjRPL17) exhibited not only upregulated expression upon bacterial stimulation but also possessed bactericidal capabilities against both Gram-negative and -positive bacteria through combined action mechanisms including interaction with cell surface molecules LPS, LTA, and PGN, disruption of cell membrane integrity, promotion of membrane depolarization, and induction of intracellular ROS production. Furthermore, a peptide derived from residues 127–141 of BjRPL17 (termed BjRPL17-1) showed antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and its methicillin-resistant strain via the same mechanism observed for the full-length protein. Additionally, the rpl17 gene was highly conserved in Metazoa, hinting it may play a universal role in the antibacterial defense system in different animals. Importantly, neither BjRPL17 nor peptide BjRPL17-1 exhibited toxicity towards mammalian cells thereby offering prospects for designing novel AMP agents based on these findings. Collectively, our results establish RPL17 as a novel member of AMPs with remarkable evolutionary conservation.

Assessing wire EDM as a novel approach for CFRP drilling: performance and thermal analysis across lay-up configurations

Conventional drilling of carbon fibre–reinforced plastic (CFRP) presents significant challenges due to the material’s abrasive nature and anisotropic properties, leading to tool wear, delamination, and surface damage. To address these challenges, this study pioneers the use of wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM) to evaluate the drilling performance of thick CFRP lay-up configurations mainly unidirectional and multidirectional, marking the first application of WEDM for CFRP drilling. The study evaluates material removal rate (MRR), delamination factor (DF), and surface damage while employing an analytical solution to estimate surface temperature and heat conduction in the laminates. An eight-full factorial experimental design was employed, involving variations in ignition current (3 A and 5 A) and pulse-off time (4 µs and 8 µs). The findings revealed that the multidirectional lay-up achieved an MRR of 2.85 mm3/min, significantly outperforming the unidirectional lay-up’s MRR of 0.95 mm3/min, representing a 300% increase at 5 A and 4 µs. However, the increase in discharge energy led to surface damage such as delamination, frayed fibres, and irregular circularity, especially evident in the unidirectional lay-up. For delamination, the multidirectional lay-up had the highest top DF of 1.4 at 5 A and 6 µs, while the unidirectional lay-up achieved the peak bottom DF of 1.24 at the same levels. While none of the parameters significantly affected the responses, the current exhibited the highest contribution ratios. Analytical predictions of the thermal distribution indicated a 45-µm delamination length at the laminate surface and depth, aligning closely with experimental predictions of 30–50 µm.

Macroscopic homochiral helicoids self-assembled via screw dislocations

Chirality is a fundamental property in nature and is widely observed at hierarchical scales from subatomic, molecular, supramolecular to macroscopic and even galaxy. However, the transmission of chirality across different length scales and the expression of homochiral nano/microstructures remain challenging. Herein, we report the formation of macroscopic homochiral helicoids with ten micrometers from enantiomeric pyromellitic diimide-based molecular triangle (PMDI-Δ) and achiral pyrene via a screw dislocation-driven co-self-assembly. Chiral transfer and expression from molecular and supramolecular levels, to the macroscopic helicoids, is continuous and follows the molecular chirality of PMDI-Δ. Furthermore, the screw dislocation and chirality transfer lead to a unidirectional curvature of the helicoids, which exhibit excellent circularly polarized luminescence with large |glum| values up to 0.05. Our results demonstrate the formation of a homochiral macroscopic organic helicoid and function emergence from small molecules via screw dislocations, which deepens our understanding of chiral transfer and expression across different length scales.

Extraction of micro fibrous cellulose from coconut husk by using chlorine free process: Potential utilization application as a filter aid

Cellulose is one of the most important linear, hydrophobic biopolymers built-up of several units of d-glucopyranose unite through beta-1,4-Glycosidic linkage. Due to these structural features, porous nature, swelling property and strength, cellulose has many industrial and biomedical applications. In this work, we have effectively isolated micro fibrous cellulose from waste coconut husk after removing lignin, hemicellulose, and other impurities by repeated water washings, mechanical, alkali (NaOH) and chlorine free green hydrogen peroxide bleaching. This process provides about 42% w/w white to off white soft micro fibrous long and individual cylindrical rod-like microfibril having fiber size of ∼ 14 µm. The extracted micro fibrous cellulose was evaluated for structural, morphological, crystalline, and thermal properties by using FTIR, SEM, HR-TEM, XRD, and DSC. The swelling capacity of extracted micro fibrous cellulose was investigated at different pH for different contact hours. The maximum percentage swelling capacity (PSC) (991.7%) was observed in 6 h at pH 9.4 which is comparable to PSC obtained (975%) at pH 7.4 in 24 h. The property of porous nature, and high surface area, enable it to use as an eco-friendly filter aid for effective removal of colored impurities from different chemicals and pharmaceutical substances, ensuring high quality purified material.

Robust Moral Realism and the Supervenience Argument

The paper examines the supervenience argument advanced by the robust moral realists in defense of moral realism. How defensible is the supervenience argument? The paper argues that answer to this question is not as straight forward as the proponents of the robust realism assumed. It argues that defending supervenience argument without paying proper attention to details about the main tenets of moral realism in relation to “is and ought” gap that exists between natural and non-natural properties is largely responsible for why moral realists assume that up till now, there is no demonstrative argument to show that their supervenience argument had been persuasively refuted. This paper does not intend to fill the traditional gap in favor of moral realism. Instead, it intends to challenge such assumption. The paper concludes that the supervenience argument is not as defensible as the proponents of the theory have claimed.

Step-by-step negotiations and the Nash bargaining solution: Efficiency-free characterizations

Real-world bargainings often proceed step-by-step: the agents make intermediate agreements today and continue to negotiate tomorrow to reach a final agreement. We consider two natural properties of the bargaining solutions in such step-by-step negotiations and show that the Nash solution is the only solution that satisfies either of them, a very weak axiom of individual rationality, and Nash’s axioms except for Pareto optimality.

Investigation of the molecular structure of CHBP, biological activities and SARS-CoV-2 protein binding interaction by molecular and biomolecular spectroscopy approaches

The objective of this investigation is to learn more about the structural, electrical, spectroscopic, and physiochemical characteristics of biologically active cyano-4′-hydroxybiphenyl (CHBP). The title molecule’s optimized conformational analysis was computed using the DFT/B3LYP/6–311++G (d, p) level of theory. The observed wavenumbers were compared with theoretical FT-IR and FT-Raman spectra. 1H and 13C NMR experimental spectra in CDCl3 solution (solvent phase) were recorded and the chemical shift was calculated. NBO analysis was used to examine the transfer of charge as well as the intermolecular and intramolecular bonding of orbitals. The TD-DFT (time-dependent DFT) approach was used to estimate theoretical values for both the gas and solvent (ethanol) in the corresponding transitional research, which was conducted using UV–Vis’s spectra. Energy gap (Eg = 0.26764 eV) implies that the strong potential for charge transfer, and the stability of the CHBP compound. CHBP compound’s has bioactive nature, its drug-likeness and biological properties were evaluated. The predicted topological polar surface area of 44.02 \\AA2 for the molecule falls within the permissible range of < 140 \\AA2. Based on the docking results, the most stable docking score value is −6.84 kcal/mol. In that interaction, MET 165 affects both phenyl rings in a pi-sulphur fashion and a single bond hydrogen with protein moieties GLN 192. This suggests that the pi-alkyl in PRO 168 is a hydroxyl substitutional ring. Our findings demonstrate the CHBP compound is a good inhibitor against the SAR COVID-19 viral protein.

Therapeutic and diagnostic applications of exosomes in colorectal cancer.

Exosomes play a key role in colorectal cancer (CRC) related processes. This review explores the various functions of exosomes in CRC and their potential as diagnostic markers, therapeutic targets, and drug delivery vehicles. Exosomal long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs) significantly influence CRC progression. Specific exosomal lncRNAs are linked to drug resistance and tumor growth, respectively, highlighting their therapeutic potential. Similarly, miRNAs like miR-21, miR-10b, and miR-92a-3p, carried by exosomes, contribute to chemotherapy resistance by altering signaling pathways and gene expression in CRC cells. The review also discusses exosomes' utility in CRC diagnosis. Exosomes from cancer cells have distinct molecular signatures compared to healthy cells, making them reliable biomarkers. Specific exosomal lncRNAs (e.g., CRNDE-h) and miRNAs (e.g., miR-17-92a) have shown effectiveness in early CRC detection and monitoring of treatment responses. Furthermore, exosomes show promise as vehicles for targeted drug delivery. The potential of mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-derived exosomes in CRC treatment is also noted, with their role varying from promoting to inhibiting tumor progression. The application of multi-omics approaches to exosome research is highlighted, emphasizing the potential for discovering novel CRC biomarkers through comprehensive genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolomic analyses. The review also explores the emerging field of exosome-based vaccines, which utilize exosomes' natural properties to elicit strong immune responses. In conclusion, exosomes represent a promising frontier in CRC research, offering new avenues for diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Their unique properties and versatile functions underscore the need for continued investigation into their clinical applications and underlying mechanisms.

Optimizing dyeing parameters for sustainable wool dyeing using quinoa plant components with antibacterial properties

This study focuses on the sustainable utilization of Quinoa plant components, particularly its leaves, as a waste agricultural material for natural dyeing applications. Two distinct Quinoa genotypes, Titicaca and Giza, were selected for their natural dyeing properties. UV-VIS absorption spectra of Quinoa colorant extracts provided insights into their chemical composition, revealing distinctive peaks indicative of betalains (400–450 nm), chlorophyll (600–650 nm), carotenoids (400–500 nm), and aromatic amino acids (250–280 nm). Wool samples dyed with different plant parts such as flowers, leaves, and stalks exhibited distinct yellow hue, with leaves demonstrating the highest color strength. Metal mordants such as iron (II) sulphate, copper sulphate, and tin (II) chloride influenced color outcomes, highlighting their role in tailoring final appearance. Fastness properties of dyed wool samples were evaluated, with leaves showing moderate staining resistance and good light fastness. Additionally, antibacterial properties of leaves of Giza Quinoa variety were assessed, showing promising activity against Staphylococcus aureus. The antibacterial properties of fabrics dyed with the leaf extract by mordanting method with different metal salt mordants, particularly Fe, Cr, and Cu, exhibited significant enhancement. These results highlight the multifaceted benefits of Quinoa plant components in sustainable natural dyeing and textile applications, emphasizing their potential for eco-friendly practices in the textile industry.

Growing Importance of Camel Milk in Human Health

Milk is considered as a complete food as it is rich in proteins, fats, minerals, and vitamins that are essential for human nutrition. Camel milk, a dietary staple in hot and arid regions for millennia, has recently gained attention for its nutritional richness and therapeutic properties. With a global camel population of 35 million, countries in East and Central Africa harbor the largest populations, with Ethiopia ranking second in production after Somalia. Beyond its significance in pastoralist communities, camel milk exhibits diverse health benefits, including anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory effects. Its unique chemical composition, including high levels of vitamin C, essential minerals, and protective proteins like lactoferrin, lactoperoxidase, immunoglobulins, and lysozyme, makes it a potential alternative to bovine milk. Camel milk lacks β-lactoglobulin, which causes allergic to cow milk proteins. Notably, camel milk's role in managing conditions such as diabetes, allergies, autism, cancer, tuberculosis, hepatitis, and arthritis. Moreover, its hypoallergenic nature and antimicrobial properties make it a promising functional food. Insulin-like proteins, which imitate insulin's role in controlling blood sugar levels and hence improve glucose uptake, contribute to its efficacy. Camel milk has cosmetic effects due to the presence of α-hydroxy acids, which help to plump the skin and smooth fine lines. Despite its importance, camel milk remains underappreciated, necessitating further research and awareness efforts to unlock its full therapeutic potential and promote its consumption. This paper aims to shed light on the diverse health benefits of camel milk.

The isolation and identification of Bacillus velezensis ZN-S10 from vanilla (V. planifolia), and the microbial distribution after the curing process

The market value of vanilla beans (Vanilla planifolia) is constantly increasing due to their natural aroma and flavor properties that improve after a curing process, where bacteria colonization plays a critical role. However, a few publications suggest that bacteria play a role in the curing process. Hence, this study aimed to isolate Bacillus sp. that could be used for fermenting V. planifolia while analyzing their role in the curing process. Bacillus velezensis ZN-S10 identified with 16S rRNA sequencing was isolated from conventionally cured V. planifolia beans. A bacteria culture solution of B. velezensis ZN-S10 (1 mL of 1 × 107 CFU mL−1) was then coated on 1 kg of non-cured vanilla pods that was found to ferment and colonize vanilla. PCA results revealed distinguished bacterial communities of fermented vanilla and the control group, suggesting colonization of vanilla. Phylogenetic analysis showed that ZN-S10 was the dominant Bacillus genus member and narrowly correlated to B. velezensis EM-1 and B. velezensis PMC206-1, with 78% and 73% similarity, respectively. The bacterial taxonomic profiling of cured V. planifolia had a significant relative abundance of Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Cyanobacteria, Planctomycetes, and Bacteroidetes phyla according to the predominance. Firmicutes accounted for 55% of the total bacterial sequences, suggesting their colonization and effective fermentation roles in curing vanilla.

Material‐Constrained Optimization of Liquid Crystal‐Based Holograms

AbstractA novel material‐constrained method for the design of liquid crystal optical devices – computer‐generated liquid crystal‐based holograms – and their manufacture using photo‐patterning is demonstrated. The developed topology optimization method is compared to the Gerchberg‐Saxton algorithm, and key advantages and disadvantages are outlined. The key novelties and advantages of the method are that it accounts for the natural relaxation and material properties of the liquid crystal and that it can account for different material or manufacturing constraints, such as maximum optical axis gradients. The viability of the method is applied for different binary and greyscale target images of varying complexity, target image sizes, and algorithms that account for the material properties of the liquid crystal. Finally, with the topology optimization design approach and photo‐patterning, it is possible to produce high‐accuracy and high‐contrast liquid crystal‐based computer‐generated holograms.

The evolving developmental role of the state as public trustee of South Africa's natural resources and property

Through its environmental laws and policies, the state needs to ensure the ecologically sustainable development and use of South Africa's natural resources, while promoting justifiable economic and social development. Thus, the view that property owners may not use their property in ways that prejudice the community and other peoples' interests in environmental resources must be considered. This corresponds with the acknowledged stance that property, in its widest sense, has a "public or civic or proprietary" aspect to it that transcends individual economic interests, and that private property ownership should be inherently limited for the benefit of society at large. Property is, therefore, intimately bound up with the socio-economic security and well-being of all South African citizens. Since a developmental state actively guides economic development and the use of the country's resources to meet the needs of the people, the developmental role of the state should serve the public interest. In South Africa, though, the public function of property is frequently usurped by the government's developmental-state ambitions and influenced by political and economic considerations that affect the socio-economic fabric of the country. The South African government, as public trustee of the nation's natural resources, must regulate access to and use of natural resources by exercising its stewardship ethic. However, this is not always the case when it comes to critical resources like water and land - a situation that perpetuates the historically imbalanced distribution of wealth in South Africa.

Ab initio molecular dynamics study of hydroxyl positioning in butanediol and its impact on deep eutectic solvent structure

Electrolytes play a crucial role in enhancing the performance of energy storage devices, including batteries and supercapacitors. However, traditional electrolytes, such as aqueous solutions, organic solvents, and ionic liquids, exhibit inherent limitations and challenges. Deep eutectic solvents have recently emerged as promising alternatives due to their environmentally friendly nature and favorable properties. Despite their widespread applications in various domains, their potential as electrolytes remains relatively underexplored. This study investigates three distinct types of deep eutectic solvents derived from different isomers of butanediols combined with choline chloride. Ab initio molecular dynamics simulations are employed to analyze the microstructure of these deep eutectic solvents, focusing on non-covalent electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonding patterns, and vibrational spectra. The results reveal significant differences in the structural configuration of hydrogen bond acceptors and hydrogen bond donors and their interactions within the deep eutectic solvents. Specifically, the positioning of functional groups in hydrogen bond donors significantly impacts the hydrogen bonding network and the interaction with monoatomic ions. Moreover, the vibrational spectra analysis highlights the existence of hydrogen bonds involving stretching modes of the OH group, as evidenced by redshift deviations. Overall, this study provides valuable insights into the unique features of deep eutectic solvents as potential electrolytes for energy storage applications. The comprehensive analysis of their microstructure and vibrational properties enhances our understanding of deep eutectic solvent utilization and opens avenues for further research in sustainable energy storage.

Monolithic DNApatite: An Elastic Apatite with Sub-Nanometer Scale Organo-Inorganic Structures.

Hydroxyapatite (HA) exhibits outstanding biocompatibility, bioactivity, osteoconductivity, and natural anti-inflammatory properties. Pure HA, ion-doped HA, and HA-polymer composites are investigated, butcritical limitations such as brittleness remain; numerous efforts are being made to address them. Herein, the novel self-crystallization of a polymeric single-stranded deoxyribonucleic acid (ssDNA) without additional phosphate ions for synthesizing deoxyribonucleic apatite (DNApatite) is presented. The synthesized DNApatite, DNA1Ca2.2(PO4)1.3OH2.1, has a repetitive dual phase of inorganic HA crystals and amorphous organic ssDNA at the sub-nm scale, forming nanorods. Its mechanical properties, including toughness and elasticity, are significantly enhanced compared with those of HA nanorod, with a Young's modulus similar to that of natural bone.

A Review: Surface Engineering of Lipid-Based Drug Delivery Systems.

This review explores the evolution of lipid-based nanoparticles (LBNPs) for drug delivery (DD). Herein, LBNPs are classified into liposomes and cell membrane-based nanoparticles (CMNPs), each with unique advantages and challenges. Conventional LBNPs possess drawbacks such as poor targeting, quick clearance, and limited biocompatibility. One of the possible alternatives to overcome these challenges is surface modification of nanoparticles (NPs) with materials such as polyethylene glycol (PEG), aptamers, antibody fragments, peptides, CD44, hyaluronic acid, folic acid, palmitic acid, and lactoferrin. Thus, the main focus of this review will be on the different surface modifications that enable LBNPs to have beneficial properties for DD, such as enhancing mass transport properties, immune evasion, improved stability, and targeting. Moreover, various CMNPs are explored used for DD derived from cells such as red blood cells (RBCs), platelets, leukocytes, cancer cells, and stem cells, highlighting their unique natural properties (e.g., biocompatibility and ability to evade the immune system). This discussion extends to the biomimicking of hybrid NPs accomplished through the surface coating of synthetic (mainly polymeric) NPs with different cell membranes. This review aims to provide a comprehensive resource for researchers on recent advances in the field of surface modification of LBNPs and CMNPs. Overall, this review provides valuable insights into the dynamic field of lipid-based DD systems.

Inovasi Bersih: Pelatihan Pembuatan Sabun Cuci Tangan Ekstrak Sereh Wangi (Citronella) Bersama Karang Taruna IKRIMA Gondangrejo Karanganyar

Karang Taruna (IKRIMA) plays an active role in increasing productivity by participating in a training program for making natural antiseptic hand washing soap made from citronella. The choice of citronella as the main ingredient is based on its high economic value and natural properties. Additionally, citronella can inhibit the growth of bacteria, viruses, and fungi, making it an ideal choice for hand hygiene products. IKRIMA members have taken part in a series of comprehensive training regarding the manufacture of antiseptic hand washing soap. This activity includes product manufacturing and packaging practices. IKRIMA can produce hand washing soap that meets the desired quality standards, both in terms of antiseptic effectiveness as well as safety and comfort for users. Making antiseptic hand washing soap is one of the positive activities that encourages IKRIMA members to continue learning and developing. Apart from improving skills and knowledge, this activity also provides economic benefits for them and the surrounding community through the sale of the products produced.

Metaethics and the Nature of Properties

Abstract This paper explores the connection between two philosophical debates concerning the nature of properties. The first, metaethical debate is about whether normative properties are ordinary natural properties or some unique kind of non-natural properties. The second, metaphysical debate is about whether properties are sets of objects, transcendent or immanent universals, or sets of tropes. I argue that nominalism, transcendent realism and immanent realism are not neutral frameworks for the metaethical debate but instead lead to either metaethical naturalism or non-naturalism. We can therefore investigate the metaethical question on its own terms only within the framework of trope theory.

Screening the Potential f Fungal Derived Bioherbicide in Weed Management

Synthetic herbicides have long been a cornerstone of modern agriculture, providing effective weed control but often at significant environmental and health costs. These chemicals can persist in the environment, leach into groundwater, and harm non-target organisms, including humans. Additionally, the overuse of synthetic herbicides has led to the development of herbicide-resistant weeds, further complicating weed management strategies. In response to these challenges, researchers and farmers alike are increasingly turning to bioherbicides derived from fungi as a sustainable alternative. Fungal bioherbicides harness the natural antagonistic properties of fungi to target weeds. Unlike synthetic herbicides, which are chemically synthesized and often broad-spectrum in action, fungal bioherbicides utilize either the fungi themselves as pathogens or their metabolites to disrupt weed growth. This approach offers several distinct advantages:Target Specificity: Fungal bioherbicides can be highly specific to certain weed species or even to specific stages of weed growth. This specificity reduces collateral damage to non-target plants and organisms, making them particularly suitable for environmentally sensitive areas such as organic farms, riparian zones, and protected ecosystems. Environmental Friendliness: Unlike synthetic herbicides that can persist in the environment and accumulate in soil and water bodies, fungal bioherbicides generally have lower persistence. They degrade more rapidly and often have minimal impact on non-target organisms, thereby preserving biodiversity and ecosystem health. Reduced Risk of Resistance: Synthetic herbicides often face the challenge of herbicide-resistant weeds, which evolve due to continuous and widespread use. Fungal bioherbicides, by contrast, pose a lower risk of resistance development. This is because they typically act through multiple modes of action or biochemical pathways within the weed, making it harder for weeds to develop resistance mechanisms. Research into fungal-derived bioherbicides is actively exploring and harnessing these advantages. Scientists are screening diverse fungal species to identify potent pathogens or metabolites that effectively inhibit weed growth. Moreover, advances in biotechnology and genetic engineering allow for the enhancement of fungal strains to optimize their bioherbicidal properties while ensuring safety and efficacy. One promising example is the use of fungal pathogens like Phomamacrostoma and Colletotrichum truncatum, which have demonstrated efficacy against various weed species including common agricultural weeds like velvetleaf and pigweed. These fungi infect weeds through mechanisms such as spore attachment, penetration of plant tissues, and secretion of phytotoxic metabolites that inhibit weed growth. In addition to their direct impact on weed management, fungal bioherbicides contribute to sustainable agricultural practices by reducing reliance on synthetic chemicals. They align with principles of integrated pest management (IPM) by offering a biological control method that complements cultural and mechanical weed control strategies. Moving forward, continued research and development efforts are essential to refine fungal bioherbicides, optimize application techniques, and expand their practical use in diverse agricultural settings. Challenges such as formulation stability, cost-effectiveness, and regulatory approvals also need to be addressed to facilitate widespread adoption by farmers.