Natural Categories Research Articles

New JAXA High-Resolution Land Use/Land Cover Map for Vietnam Aiming for Natural Forest and Plantation Forest Monitoring

Highly detailed and accurate forest maps are important for various applications including forest monitoring, forestry policy, climate change, and biodiversity loss. This study demonstrates a comprehensive and geographically transferable approach to produce a 12 category high-resolution land use/land cover (LULC) map over mainland Vietnam in 2016 by remote sensing data. The map included several natural forest categories (evergreen broadleaf, deciduous (mostly deciduous broadleaf), and coniferous (mostly evergreen coniferous)) and one category representing all popular plantation forests in Vietnam such as acacia (Acacia mangium, Acacia auriculiformis, Acacia hybrid), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus), rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), and others. The approach combined the advantages of various sensor data by integrating their posterior probabilities resulting from applying a probabilistic classifier (comprised of kernel density estimation and Bayesian inference) to each datum individually. By using different synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images (PALSAR-2/ScanSAR, PALSAR-2 mosaic, Sentinel-1), optical images (Sentinel-2, Landsat-8) and topography data (AW3D30), the resultant map achieved 85.6% for the overall accuracy. The major forest classes including evergreen broadleaf forests and plantation forests had a user’s accuracy and producer’s accuracy ranging from 86.0% to 95.3%. Our map identified 9.55 × 106 ha (±0.16 × 106 ha) of natural forests and 3.89 × 106 ha (±0.11 × 106 ha) of plantation forests over mainland Vietnam, which were close to the Vietnamese government’s statistics (with differences of less than 8%). This study’s result provides a reliable input/reference to support forestry policy and land sciences in Vietnam.

The Legal Certification of Sex in Belgium over Time. Ideological Effects and Practical Implications

<p><br />Belgium has recently modified the way ‘sex’ is legally certified for trans* people following the principle of self-determination. However, like in most countries, this modification has not changed the way ‘sex’ is determined for all members of society, being limited to trans* people. How is sex legally certified for different categories of people in Belgium and what are the effects thereof? Drawing on the theoretical perspective of discursive psychology (DP), we consider sex/gender categories as something constructed in discourse – in this case, legislative discourse – and not as an essentialist and pre-discursive reality. Categories are thus an effect of discourse: what discourse accomplishes or constructs. Based on this premise, this paper aims at elucidating the ideological effects and practical implications of the legal certification of sex in Belgium. The effects of the legislative discourse are ideological in the sense that they establish social norms, in this case, regarding sex/gender, leading to practical implications in everyday life. To elucidate these effects, we first identified Belgian civil law on the legal certification of sex since the establishment of Belgium as a sovereign state. We then applied a DP-inspired analytical device comprising a qualitative content analysis and the examination of content variability. The variability of discourse is a key analytical tool to elucidate the effects of discourse since these are not directly observable. The results show that the analysed legislation constructs women and men as natural categories. This is carried out through: 1) the establishment of a distinction between the population at large (unmarked) and those ‘outside the norm’ (marked subjects: ‘transgender’, ‘intersex’); 2) the lack of legal regulation of the attribution of sex markers at birth, being taken for granted; 3) the regulation of the latter only in ‘abnormal cases’ (called ‘children suffering from sexual ambiguity’); and 4) the fact that gender identity is recognised as a criterion for the attribution of sex markers only for trans* people, presented as an exception to the norm. This variability reifies sexual dimorphism and naturalises the correspondence between ‘biological sex’ and gender identity, thereby constituting ‘normative’ and ‘deviant’ sex/gender categories. The results are discussed in light of the practical implications that this legal norm has in everyday life.</p><p> </p>

Using heterogeneous Fe-ZSM-5 nanocatalyst to improve the electro Fenton process for acid blue 25 removal in a novel reactor with orbiting electrodes

Abstract In this study, a modified electro Fenton system, a heterogeneous nanocatalyst Fe-ZSM-5, and an innovative reactor with orbiting graphite electrodes were used to remove the acid blue 25. Heterogeneous nanocatalysts are divided into natural and synthetic categories, which have advantages such as increasing the working pH range, reducing the leakage of transition metal into the solution, reducing the sludge volume, and reusability in several cycles. In this study, Fe-ZSM-5 nanocatalyst was synthesized by ZSM-5 nano zeolite, iron ion, using the wet impregnation method. After its characterization by XRD, FTIR, and FESEM analyses, the capability of the nanocatalyst in electro Fenton process for dye removal was investigated by the OFAT method. Under optimal conditions of the initial pH = 3, I = 500 mA, nanocatalyst concentration = 100 ppm, electrolyte concentration = 0.01 M, electrodes orbital speed = 50 rpm, and Fe loading = 10 wt%,the removal of about 90% of the 200 ppm dye and consumption of 321.65 kWh/Kg energy was obtained. The optimal parameters were selected based on dye removal efficiency and optimal energy consumption in each experiment. Research has shown that the pH dependency significantly decreased when using a heterogeneous nanocatalyst, and in some cases, the electro Fenton process is pH-independent. Also, the nanocatalyst was used in 5 consecutive cycles, while the decolorization did not drop dramatically. On the other hand, the decolorization percentage in the orbiting mode of the electrodes was significantly more than the static one.

Depth in convolutional neural networks solves scene segmentation.

Feed-forward deep convolutional neural networks (DCNNs) are, under specific conditions, matching and even surpassing human performance in object recognition in natural scenes. This performance suggests that the analysis of a loose collection of image features could support the recognition of natural object categories, without dedicated systems to solve specific visual subtasks. Research in humans however suggests that while feedforward activity may suffice for sparse scenes with isolated objects, additional visual operations ('routines') that aid the recognition process (e.g. segmentation or grouping) are needed for more complex scenes. Linking human visual processing to performance of DCNNs with increasing depth, we here explored if, how, and when object information is differentiated from the backgrounds they appear on. To this end, we controlled the information in both objects and backgrounds, as well as the relationship between them by adding noise, manipulating background congruence and systematically occluding parts of the image. Results indicate that with an increase in network depth, there is an increase in the distinction between object- and background information. For more shallow networks, results indicated a benefit of training on segmented objects. Overall, these results indicate that, de facto, scene segmentation can be performed by a network of sufficient depth. We conclude that the human brain could perform scene segmentation in the context of object identification without an explicit mechanism, by selecting or "binding" features that belong to the object and ignoring other features, in a manner similar to a very deep convolutional neural network.

Categorical Rhythms Are Shared between Songbirds and Humans

Rhythm is a prominent feature of music. Of the infinite possible ways of organizing events in time, musical rhythms are almost always distributed categorically. Such categories can facilitate the transmission of culture-a feature that songbirds and humans share. We compared rhythms of live performances of music to rhythms of wild thrush nightingale and domestic zebra finch songs. In nightingales, but not in zebra finches, we found universal rhythm categories, with patterns that were surprisingly similar to those of music. Isochronous 1:1 rhythms were similarly common. Interestingly, a bias toward small ratios (around 1:2 to 1:3), which is highly abundant in music, was observed also in thrush nightingale songs. Within that range, however, there was no statistically significant bias toward exact integer ratios (1:2 or 1:3) in the birds. High-ratio rhythms were abundant in the nightingale song and are structurally similar to fusion rhythms (ornaments) in music. In both species, preferred rhythms remained invariant over extended ranges of tempos, indicating natural categories. The number of rhythm categories decreased at higher tempos, with a threshold above which rhythm became highly stereotyped. In thrush nightingales, this threshold occurred at a tempo twice faster than in humans, indicating weaker structural constraints and a remarkable motor proficiency. Together, the results suggest that categorical rhythms reflect similar constraints on learning motor skills across species. The saliency of categorical rhythms across humans and thrush nightingales suggests that they promote, or emerge from, the cultural transmission of learned vocalizations. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

Estimation of Environmental Effects of Industrial Tomato Cultivatıon in Field by the Life Cycle Assessment Method

Ülkemizde domates üretimi her bölgede yapılabilirken, ticari anlamda sanayi tipi domates yetiştiriciliği Marmara ve Ege bölgelerinde yoğunlaşmaktadır. Domates üretimi geleneksel yetiştiricilikte sera ve tarla olmak üzere iki farklı şekilde yapılmaktadır. Gelişen teknoloji ile yeni yetiştiricilik şekli olan topraksız tarımda hidroponik domates yetiştiriciliği de üretim şekilleri arasına eklenmiştir. Üretim sistemlerinin farklılaşması ile üretim sistemlerinin girdilerinin farklılaşmasına ve dolayısıyla da çevresel etkilerinin farklılaşmasına neden olmaktadır. Bu çalışma kapsamında ülkemizde, sürdürülebilir domates üretimi ve domates sanayi için, tarla domatesi üretiminin çevresel etkilerinin yaşam döngüsü değerlendirmesi yöntemi kullanılarak ortaya konulması amaçlanmıştır. Çalışmada Bursa bölgesinde tarlada sanayi domatesi üreten bir işletme ele alınmıştır. İşletme ile yapılan görüşmeler sonucunda yaşam döngüsü analizinde kullanılacak olan su tüketimi, üretimin tüm aşamalarındaki enerji tüketimi, kullanılan organik ve kimyasal gübre miktarı, araç kullanımı, araçların yakıt tüketimleri vb. bilgiler toplanmıştır. Girdiler kullanılarak yapılan üretim sonucunda ortaya çıkan son ürünler, domates, emisyonlar, atıklar ve kimyasal gübreden kaynaklanan kimyasallar olarak alınmıştır. Çalışmada üretimin neden olabileceği olası çevresel etki kategorileri seçilerek analiz gerçekleştirilmiştir. Çalışmada küresel ısınma, asidifikasyon, ötrofikasyon, ozon incelmesi, iklim değişimi, ekosistem-arazi kullanımı, ekosistem-toplam, insan zehirlenmesi ve doğal kaynak tüketimi etki kategorileri seçilmiştir. Çalışma sonucunda seçilen etki kategorilerinden ötrofikasyon, alan kullanımı ve toplam ekosistem etkisi kategorilerinde diğerlerine oranla yüksek etki değerleri elde edilmiştir. Tarlada domates yetiştiriciliğinde uygulanan kimyasal ve organik gübre miktarlarının yüksek olması çevresel etkileri ötrofikasyona kaydırmaktadır. Sonuç olarak yetiştiricilerin arazilerine uygulayacakları kimyasal ve organik gübre miktarlarına son derece dikkat etmeleri ve toprağın ve bitkinin gereksinimini ile uygulama döneminde meteorolojik şartları da gözeterek uygun miktarları arazilerine uygulamalıdır.

AD HOC CATEGORIES IN THE EKPHRASTIC SPACE OF JOHN BERGER'S ESSAYS ABOUT PAINTING: A COGNITIVE LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS

AbstractThe study presents a cognitive linguistic analysis of the process of ad hoc category construction as a meansof ekphrasis in John Berger's essays about painters' works of art. After offering a theoretical description of an adhoc category as contrasted with a natural category, the paper proceeds with a detailed analysis of how an ad hoccategory is constructed in one of Berger's essays. It then examines the typical features of the process of ad hoccategory creation in the ekphrastic space of the essays.RésuméThe purpose of this study is to reveal the linguocognitive characteristics of the ad hoc categoriesin the ekphrastic space of Berger's essays. The methods applied in the research are conceptualsemantic and contextual interpretative analyses as well as analysis in terms of conceptual metaphors.The material of the study is Berger's essays about 20th-century painters. Ultimately, this studydetermines that ad hoc category construction in the ekphrastic space of Berger's essays is alwaysconnected with generalising ekphrasis comprising a whole body of a painter's work rather thansimple ekphrasis directed towards one picture. Also descriptive ekphrasis is important for the creationof the ad hoc categories, and interpretative ekphrasis bears a crucial role in this process. The propertythat establishes the identity of an ad hoc category is always given an explicit verbal representation.When the identifying property is used to characterise the painter whose work is the prime focusin the essay, this property is unambiguously presented in semantically rich verbal contexts larger thanone sentence, but when the ad hoc category identifying property is used to represent an artist who onlyreceives a cursory mention, this property is given very briefly. The implicit members of the ad hoccategories tend to remain implicit, thus highlighting the achievements of the painter under discussion.According to this study, there are three subtypes of the ad hoc categories in the ekphrastic spaceof Berger's essays: a completely novel one, a category that is developed through reconsiderationof a well-established category, and a category in doubt. The existence of such subtypes signifies thathuman categorisation is a flexible process with natural categories and completely novel categoriesat the extremes of a range of categorical possibilities.

The Extraordinary Ordinary: Re‐engineering Multilingualism as a Natural Category

AbstractThis article addresses different ways scholars conceptualize the multilingual repertoire. Formal and functional approaches investigate crosslinguistic influence across clearly demarcated languages, while dynamic systems theory and translanguaging approaches question countability and boundedness of languages. Problems with both perspectives are discussed, and a unified approach that relies on the idea of languages as natural categories is presented as a form of conceptual reengineering. It embraces the possibility and the meaningfulness of the identification of languages in the repertoire while also accounting for their continuous, graded nature and the lack of clear boundaries of language categories. The proposal accounts for seemingly inconsistent findings on the effects of bi‐ and multilingualism on cognition and on language learning. Multilingualism as a field of inquiry is the investigation of an ordinary phenomenon; what is special about multilingualism is that multilingual speakers may have an extraordinary amount of language and linguistic variability at their disposal.

JEDDAH RISK PREVENTION AND EDUCATIONAL COMPLEX

The idea of The Civil Defence Awareness Educational Center (Prevention Disaster) will be a place that people get the awareness and the proper training protection and education. The center promotes a safety life though combining both physical training activity and awareness on how to maintain a safety life as well as how to react through any common kind of disaster such as flood and fires. This study used the concepts based on the case study to develop the project. This project will focus on the 3 major hazards that affect the population namely natural and man-made disasters, motor vehicle hazard and diving hazard. The zone of simulation for motor vehicle was outlined. The Zone of the proposed complex consists of administration zone, cultural & simulation zone (natural & man-made disaster category), museum zone (diving category), diving awareness zone, motor vehicle simulation zone, driving safety test zone, library zone, medical zone and commercial zone. The selected site for the complex is located at Salman bay based on several criteria analysis. This professional complex believes to create the awareness among people towards hazards and risk management.

Black-capped Chickadees (Poecile atricapillus) can identify individual females by their fee-bee songs

Abstract Individual recognition is a social behavior that occurs in many bird species. A bird’s ability to discriminate among familiar and unfamiliar conspecifics is critical to avoid wasting resources such as time and energy during social interactions. Black-capped Chickadees (Poecile atricapillus) are able to discriminate individual female and male chick-a-dee calls, potentially male and female tseet calls, and male fee-bee songs. In the current study, we used an operant discrimination go/no-go paradigm to determine whether female and male chickadees could discriminate between fee-bee songs produced by individual female chickadees as well as test which song component(s) enable this discrimination. Birds trained on natural categories—the songs of different females—learned to respond to rewarded stimuli more quickly than birds trained on random groupings of female songs and were able to transfer this learning to new songs from the same categories. Chickadees were also able to generalize their responding when exposed to the bee note of the fee-bee song of rewarded individuals; they did not generalize to fee notes. Our results provide evidence that Black-capped Chickadees can use female-produced fee-bee songs for individual recognition. However, the acoustic features underlying individual recognition require further investigation.

Children’s Use of Generic Labels, Discreteness, and Stability to Form a Novel Category

ABSTRACT Children hold rich essentialist beliefs about natural and social categories, representing them as discrete (mutually exclusive with sharp boundaries) and stable (with membership remaining constant over an individual’s lifespan). Children use essential categories to make inductive inferences about individuals. How do children determine what categories to consider essential and to use as an inductive base? Although much research has demonstrated children’s use of labels to form categories, here we explore whether children might also use the observed discreteness or stability of a trait to form categories based on that trait. In the present study, we taught children about novel creatures and provided them with a cue (discreteness, stability, labels, or no cue) to form texture categories rather than shape or color categories. Experiment 1 found that children (4–6 years, n = 140) used labels but not discreteness or stability cues to form texture categories more often than at baseline. Experiment 2 (5–6 years, n = 152) found that children who later recognized the stability and discreteness cues used them to form categories more often than those who did not later recognize the cues, but were still overall less likely to use these cues than to use labels cues. Results underscore the unique importance of labels as a cue for category formation and suggest that children do not readily rely on the stability and discreteness of a trait to form animate categories despite readily inferring that such categories are stable and discrete. Implications for natural and social category representations are discussed.

Integrating prediction errors at two time scales permits rapid recalibration of speech sound categories.

Speech perception presumably arises from internal models of how specific sensory features are associated with speech sounds. These features change constantly (e.g. different speakers, articulation modes etc.), and listeners need to recalibrate their internal models by appropriately weighing new versus old evidence. Models of speech recalibration classically ignore this volatility. The effect of volatility in tasks where sensory cues were associated with arbitrary experimenter-defined categories were well described by models that continuously adapt the learning rate while keeping a single representation of the category. Using neurocomputational modelling we show that recalibration of natural speech sound categories is better described by representing the latter at different time scales. We illustrate our proposal by modeling fast recalibration of speech sounds after experiencing the McGurk effect. We propose that working representations of speech categories are driven both by their current environment and their long-term memory representations.

Assessing land use and land cover change in coastal urban wetlands of international importance in Ghana using Intensity Analysis

In the era of global environmental change, land transformation is acknowledged as a critical subject that needs to be addressed. Even though some studies have been carried out in Ghana on land use and land cover (LULC) change of wetlands, the conventional methods used were unable to reveal the underlying processes associated with the land transformation. This study employed Intensity Analysis to assess LULC change pattern (1985–2017) in three coastal urban wetlands of international importance in Ghana in order to identify the fundamental processes driving the wetland landscape transformation. Wetlands considered for this study were the Densu Delta, Sakumo II and Muni-Pomadze Ramsar Sites. The observed overall annual change in the first time interval; 2.42% (Densu Delta), 1.47% (Sakumo II) and 2.65% (Muni-Pomadze) was smaller compared to that of the second time interval 2.60% (Densu Delta), 3.55% (Sakumo II) and 2.91% (Muni-Pomadze). The human-induced LULC categories continuously grew at the expense of natural LULC categories. Large transitions from natural LULC categories to built-up were observed in all the three wetlands and in addition, large transition of dense forest to cultivated land was recorded at the Muni-Pomadze Ramsar Site. The main underlying process associated with land transformation in the wetlands was urbanization. Besides, agricultural activities also contributed substantially to LULC changes at the Muni-Pomadze wetland.

Teleological Essentialism: Generalized.

Natural/social kind essentialism is the view that natural kind categories, both living and non-living natural kinds, as well as social kinds (e.g., race, gender), are essentialized. On this view, artifactual kinds are not essentialized. Our view-teleological essentialism-is that a broad range of categories are essentialized in terms of teleology, including artifacts. Utilizing the same kinds of experiments typically used to provide evidence of essentialist thinking-involving superficial change (study 1), transformation of insides (study 2), and inferences about offspring (study 3)-we find support for the view that a broad range of categories-living natural kinds, non-living natural kinds, and artifactual kinds-are essentialized in terms of teleology. Study 4 tests a unique prediction of teleological essentialism and also provides evidence that people make inferences about purposes which in turn guide categorization judgments.

Mapeamento das Unidades de Conservação das Regiões Norte e Noroeste do Estado do Rio de Janeiro

O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a evolução e o panorama atual das Unidades de Conservação (UCs) do Brasil, com enfoque na mesorregião Norte e Noroeste do Estado do Rio de Janeiro. A pesquisa foi realizada a partir de dados disponibilizados pelo Ministério do Meio Ambiente, como a distribuição das UCs no território, processada por Sistema de Informação Geográfico, informações sobre sua área, data de criação, tipologias e gestão. A receita obtida pelo ICMS ecológico foi analisada no sítio do CEPERJ. A primeira UC criada nessa mesoregião foi o Parque Estadual do Desengano, em 1970. A partir da década de 1990 houve aumento significativo de UCs e atualmente existem 40, sendo 27 de Uso Sustentável, representadas, principalmente, pela categoria Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural. Na categoria Proteção Integral, os parques compõem a maior parte das UCs. A Região Noroeste tem 4% de sua área total protegida por UCs, enquanto que na Região Norte Fluminense este percentual é de 6%. A presença de UCs tem auxiliado os municípios das regiões Norte e Noroeste quanto a captação do ICMS ecológico, totalizando cerca de R$ 86 milhões desde 2009, o que é pouco representativo em relação aos outros municípios do estado do Rio de Janeiro. A Mata Atlântica presente nestes territórios é diversificada, com diferentes fitofisionomias, onde habitam espécies sob ameaça de extinção. A expansão da quantidade e uma boa gestão das UCs já existentes são meios para aumentar a arrecadação fiscal dos municípios e diminuir a fragilidade ambiental regional, fruto de uma ocupação desordenada do território. As UCs podem proporcionar serviços ambientais essenciais, como a diminuição das secas, enchentes e erosão do solo, problemas ambientais recorrentes nesta mesorregião.

Mapping smallholder and large-scale cropland dynamics with a flexible classification system and pixel-based composites in an emerging frontier of Mozambique

Remote sensing assessments of land use and land cover change (LULCC) are critical to improve understanding of socio-economic, institutional and ecological processes that lead to and stem from land use change. This is particularly crucial in the emerging frontiers of Southern Africa, where there is a paucity of LULCC studies relative to the humid tropics. This study focuses on Gurué District (5606 km2) of Zambezia province of Mozambique, one of many countries in the region that has experienced a recent growth in foreign investments in agriculture through large-scale land acquisitions, often resulting in land use conversions and modifications. Previous LULCC assessments covering Mozambique have focused on dynamics between natural and anthropogenic land categories, with limited efforts to distinguish the different land use agents associated with these changes, and relating this with social, economic and technological processes. In this study we built a new LULC assessment methodology that leverages the power of open remote sensing data and tools to integrate categorical and continuous training and validation data obtained from field surveys and Collect Earth software within Google Earth Engine. We then examined the suitability of five pixel-based compositing techniques for generating cloud-free Landsat images that can support analysis of land use dynamics in persistently cloudy, mosaic landscapes with more limited Landsat archives. Drawing upon the spectral and textural features of Landsat data in pixel-based composites, we classified land use over three time periods, 2006, 2012 and 2016, and characterized land use change, focusing on changes between small-scale cropland, large-scale mechanized cropland, and other land uses. This method can be upscaled and applied in many parts of Africa with similar historic image availability challenges, and similar economic contexts with great disparities between small-scale unmechanized cropland and very large-scale mechanized cropland, to explore land consolidation dynamics and agent-specific pathways of land use change.

CIVIL LEGAL PERSONALITY OF PHYSICAL ENTITIES: THE CONTENT EVOLUTION

The article is devoted to the memory of the outstanding Russian scholar Dmitriy I. Meyer (1819—1856) — the ancestor of Russian civilistics who declared that the rights of individuals depend on different circumstances that are, to some extent, natural and, to some extent, historical. Meyer’s statement that “there are different degrees of insanity: sometimes it is stronger, sometimes weaker” turned out to be accepted by the Russian legislator only in 2015 by making appropriate changes in the Russian legislation regarding the problem of legal capacity of citizens. The paper has investigated the evolution of the content of legal personality of individuals in the field of private legal relations, including family relations, as well as in the field of relations complicated by a foreign element, i.e. in the field of private international law. On the basis of the analysis, the author explores a civil legal personality of a natural person category as her ability to be a subject of civil law including such elements as capacity and legal capacity. Civil capacity should be understood as a legally equal abstract opportunity for everyone to have civil rights and duties. It is unacceptable to consider capacity as a subjective right to have the right: this leads to an unjustified doubling of the category of “subjective right” and hinders a proper understanding of the mechanism of civil regulation. The article investigates the subjective right as implementation of capacity of a particular person, and, therefore, citizens being legally equal in their capacity, to be not equal in the presence of specific subjective rights that constitute the content of their capacity in the abstract form. The authors have analyzed the amendments to the Civil Code of the Russian Federation introducing a new basis for limiting the legal capacity of citizens, as well as taking into account the degree of actual reduction of the ability of citizens to understand the meaning of their actions or to be in control of such actions. The article analyzes the conflict-of-laws principles of determination of capacity and legal capacity of foreign citizens. Jurisprudence, along with the recognition of the national regime of foreign citizens on the territory of the Russian Federation, indicates the need to apply foreign laws in determining the civil capacity and legal capacity of foreign nationals. The article analyzes the private law component of the institute of retortions the immediate purpose of which is to protect private rights and legitimate interests of Russian citizens. Thus, the content of the concept of civil personality of natural persons in the field of private law relations that consists of such categories as capacity and legal capacity evolves into the recognition of equality and the protection of the interests of all persons on the basis of the principles of justice, humanity and reasonability. At the same time, the State secures legal guarantees applied for the completion of the legal capacity of minors and certain categories of adult citizens through institutions of parental responsibility, guardianship and custody and establishes procedural guarantees of observance of the rights of these persons in judicial proceedings.

What Is the History of Science the History of? Early Modern Roots of the Ideology of Modern Science

The title of the article prompts at least two questions: (1) how to determine that any particular research topic or problem belongs to the history of science and (2) the effect of the history of science and other research in problematizing the very idea that science is a natural category. The category of “science” itself has become so historicized and slippery that it calls into question the integrity of what historians of science are engaged in. The thesis of the article is that the integrity of the history of science as a distinct field of scholarship may lie in understanding the antecedents to modern science as well as its ongoing development. The evident mismatch between the common representations of “science” and the miscellany of materials typically studied by a historian of science comes from a systematic ambiguity that may itself be traced back to early modern Europe. In that cultural setting, natural philosophy was held (most famously by Francis Bacon) to involve both contemplative and practical knowledge. The resulting tension and ambiguity are typified in the 18th century by Buffon’s views. The new enterprise that was called science in the 19th century arrived at an unstable ideology of natural knowledge that was heavily indebted to those early modern developments. The two complementary and competing elements in the ideology of modern science may be described as “natural philosophy” (a discourse of contemplative knowledge) and “instrumentality” (a discourse of practical or useful knowledge). The history of science in large part deals with the interrelations — always shifting and often repudiating each other — between those two poles.

LEVEL OF CHEWING ABILITY WITH VARIOUS CATEGORIES OF FUNCTIONAL TOOTH UNITS IN SUBJECTS REPORTING TO A TEACHING HOSPITAL OF PESHAWAR

Objective: To determine the level of chewing ability with various categories of FTUs in subjects reporting to Prosthodontics department, Khyber College of Dentistry, Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
 Materials and Methods:It is a descriptive, cross-sectional study conducted in Department of Prosthodontics, Khyber College of Dentistry, Peshawar from January to November, 2016. In this study a total of 166 patients were observed and a questionnaire consisting of demographic information (age and sex), number and category of FTUs and the chewing ability test questions about 15 Pakistani common test foods was filled, with 95% confidence level in 6% margin of error. The subjects who will declare all food items as easy to chew/eat will be considered to have sufficient chewing ability. Moreover, nonprobability consecutive technique was used for data collection
 Results: Out of 166 subjects, majority (95.2%) of the subjects belonging to “>8 FTUs” category showed sufficient chewing ability, while 70.6% of the individuals in “8 FTUs” category and 49.3% of the individuals from “<8 FTUs” category showed sufficient chewing ability.
 Conclusion: This study confirms that the number of retained natural teeth and categories of FTUs, consisting of posterior occluding units, are key factors to chewing ability. Eight FTUs serve acceptable chewing ability in patients who eat common Pakistani food.

Geoconservação em Monumentos Naturais no Brasil

Foi evidenciada a relevância da geodiversidade para a conservação da natureza através de um levantamento das unidades de conservação da categoria de Monumentos Naturais no Brasil. A fonte principal de dados foi o Cadastro Nacional de Unidades de Conservação - CNUC. O conceito de Monumento Natural foi analisado para o Brasil na literatura e em órgãos de proteção ao património, nomeadamente IPHAN, UNESCO e IUCN. Foram identificados 60 Monumentos Naturais no Brasil. A criação de Monumentos Naturais apresentou como principal motivação aspectos ligados à geodiversidade, algumas vezes associados à biodiversidade e/ou aspectos culturais. Muitos destes atributos estão relacionados a aspectos geomorfológicos que formam a paisagem e servem de estrutura para os biomas protegidos e a beleza cênica local. Frequentemente, mais de um tipo de feição geomorfológica ou atributo é encontrado em um mesmo Monumento Natural. Os elementos da geodiversidade que justificam os Monumentos Naturais brasileiros são: resquícios paleontológicos; maciços; cavidades naturais; serras; inselbergs; rios; lagoas; cânions; cachoeiras; falésias; dunas; e ilhas oceânicas. Os Monumentos Naturais possuem uma relação direta com a ideia de herança, ao se vincularem a aspectos geomorfológicos e culturais. O conceito de Monumento Natural na legislação brasileira deveria ser revisto para aproximar-se do conceito da IUCN que explicita componentes geológicos, culturais, espirituais e a associação com a biodiversidade local.