National Forest Research Articles

Exploring the influence of activity participation on the economic value of nature-based recreation in the Sierra Nevada

A more comprehensive understanding of how recreational values and forest visitation rates vary across different activities enables forest managers to tailor conservation and management strategies to align with preferences among visitors, ensuring more effective allocation of budgetary resources. However, current research often focuses on only a few recreational activities, resulting in limited insights for forest managers. This study aims to expand the nature-based activities considered so that management can better serve the broader public. We conduct a travel cost analysis using a large survey-based dataset to estimate the value of nature-based recreation in national forests in the Sierra Nevada region and assess how these values differ across main activities. We categorize recreational activities into five broad groups (Passive, Active, Camping, Winter, and Other) to offer a comprehensive view of recreational preferences. A truncated negative binomial regression accounting for endogenous stratification is used to analyze the relationship between the number of trips to the forests, travel cost, activity categories, and socio-demographic variables. Our results suggest a mean consumer surplus (CS) of $65 per visit per person to national forests in the Sierra Nevada. Aggregated over annual per person visits, the total CS is approximately $313.3 million per year. Our findings reveal variations in CS across activity groups, with winter activities (e.g., skiing, snowboarding) and active activities (e.g., hiking, fishing) attracting the highest number of visits, and the highest total CS. Our results provide valuable insights for national forest managers, facilitating the strategic allocation of limited resources to recreational activities that maximize societal welfare.

Soil microbes deal with the nitrogen deposition enhanced phosphorus limitation by shifting community structure in an old-growth subtropical forest

Elevated atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition potentially enhances the degree of phosphorus (P) limitation in tropical and subtropical forests. However, it remains elusive that how soil microorganisms deal with the N deposition-enhanced P limitation. We collected soils experienced 9 years of manipulative N input at various rates (0, 40, and 80 kg N ha−1 y−1) in an old-growth subtropical natural forest. We measured soil total and available carbon (C), N and P, microbial biomass C, N and P, enzyme activities involved in C, N and P acquisition, microbial community structure, as well as net N and P mineralization. Additionally, we calculated element use efficiency and evaluated microbial homeostasis index. Our findings revealed that N input increased microbial biomass C:P (MBC:P) and N:P (MBN:P) ratios. The homeostasis indexes of MBC:P and MBN:P were 0.68 and 0.75, respectively, indicating stoichiometric flexibility. Interestingly, MBC:P and MBN:P correlated significantly with the fungi:bacteria ratio (F:B), not with N and P use efficiencies, net N and P mineralization, and enzyme C:P (EEAC:P) and N:P (EEAN:P) ratios. Furthermore, EEAC:P and EEAN:P correlated positively with F:B but did not negatively correlate with the C:P and N:P ratios of available resources and microbial biomass. The effects of N deposition on MBC:P, MBN:P and EEAN:P became insignificant when including F:B as a covariate. These findings suggest that microbes flexibly adapted to the N deposition enhanced P limitation by changing microbial community structure, which not only alter microbial biomass C:N:P stoichiometry, but also the enzyme production strategy. In summary, our research advances our understanding of how soil microorganisms deal with the N deposition-enhanced soil P limitation in subtropical forests.

Allometric models for liana aboveground biomass in old-growth and secondary tropical forests of Tanzania

Allometric models for liana aboveground biomass in old-growth and secondary tropical forests of Tanzania

Enhancing deadwood reporting for forest ecosystems: Bridge equations to convert deadwood measured at any diameter threshold to reference diameters

National as well as international requirements have led to an increased need to quantify deadwood stocks in forest ecosystems given their important role not only in terms of carbon storage and regulation of the carbon cycle but also as biodiversity refugia. However, differences in definitions and field monitoring as well as gaps in existing data on deadwood mean that comparisons among countries and retrospective analyses are difficult. In this research, we propose two potential approaches to solve the most common gaps in forest deadwood monitoring. First, we develop bridging functions capable of converting deadwood measurements with a specific reference diameter to 7.5 cm (minimum diameter value in Spain) and 10.0 cm (the most common minimum value for international statistics) diameters for the main forest types while also addressing the effect of raising the minimum measurable size on the quantification of deadwood. Furthermore, we aim to calculate the ratios between the amount of standing deadwood, the most common indicator monitored in National Forest Inventories, and the entire deadwood pool as a proxy for estimating complete deadwood stocks when data are not available. For this objective, we use information obtained from the Spanish National Forest Inventory, linear models and 10-fold cross-validation. We estimate the percentage of deadwood omitted when the minimum deadwood size is increased for the main eight forest types in Spain as well as for the entire country, using two different approaches. The ratio between the amount of standing deadwood and the entire deadwood pool ranged between 0.14 and 0.45 depending on the forest type. The lowest values of this ratio were found in Open woodlands and the largest in Mediterranean conifers. The validation statistics (R2 ranging from 0.82 in Evergreen broadleaves to 0.97 in Macaronesian broadleaves) indicate that the bridging functions we propose are robust and accurate. However, the ratios between the amount of standing deadwood and the entire deadwood pool performed poorer (R2 ranging from 0.26 in Macaronesian conifers to 0.65 in Macaronesian broadleaves) and led to an overestimation of the total stocks. Our results are of value not only for the purposes of comparison and harmonization but also for the implementation of new forest monitoring systems.

Impacts and implications of anthropogenic activities on mangrove forests: A review

The purpose of this paper is to review and evaluate published literature on the causes, impacts, implications and mitigation strategies of anthropogenic activities on mangrove forests. A systematic method was utilized to access research works of literature on “Impacts and implications of anthropogenic activities on mangrove forests”. A total of fifty-three (53) research papers published between the years 1975 to 2024 was accumulated and used for this review. A subjective approach was used to select the topics: impact and implications of anthropogenic activities on mangrove forests. In this paper, five (5) roles of mangroves were assessed and presented. Anthropogenic activities that threaten mangrove forests such as land conversion, mining and logging activities and household and industrial activities were also evaluated. Further, four (4) detrimental anthropogenic activities and the potential impacts they have on natural mangrove forests and the ecosystems they thrive in was also reported on. In addition, this paper reviewed some mitigation strategies for sustainable management and conservation of our mangroves, their ecosystems and the coastlines. The published works of literature established that reduced mangrove forests, altered mangrove composition, unequal species abundance, mass mangrove mortality, pollution in mangrove areas, rising sea levels, global climate change and coastal erosion or abrasion are all effects of anthropogenic activity that have a negative impact on mangrove forests and the ecosystems. This review highlights the fact that more studies on the impact and implications of anthropogenic activities on mangroves should be done in neotropical countries since there are paucity of such information on research and published data in these biodiversity rich regions.

Plant diversity in old-growth woods: the case of the forest edges of the Favorita Park in Palermo (north-western Sicily, Italy)

This article presents the results of a study on plant diversity at different levels in residual forest stands, located in the historical Favorita Park in Palermo, Italy (established and named in 1799 by King Ferdinand IV of the House of Bourbon). These forest aspects have naturally evolved for over two centuries, under minimal conditions of anthropogenic disturbance (e.g. deforestation, fires, grazing activities, etc.). This is especially true in the area known as “Bosco Niscemi”, spread over about 8.5 hectares, in the centre of the park. Bosco Niscemi is characterized by the widespread presence of old trees, abundant necromass and litter. In this study, four different soil profiles were analysed, and classified as follows: (i) Solimovic Regosol (Arenic); ii) Eutric Arenosol (Chromic); (iii) and (iv) Skeletic Regosol (Ochric). From a phytosociological point of view, four forest communities have been identified, two of which are described as new associations (Viburno tini-Phillyreetum latifoliae ass. nova and Teucrio flavi-Phillyreetum latifoliae ass. nova). The species richness was also found to be noteworthy, with the co-occurrence of several taxa (phanerogams and cryptogams) that are of biogeographic interest or rare in Sicily, including: i) vascular flora (e.g. Viburnum tinus and Arbutus unedo, both very rare throughout the western sector of Sicily); ii) bryophytes [Cryphaea heteromalla (new record of a very rare species in Sicily) as well as Hypnum cupressiforme and Leptodon smithii, also never previously found at such low altitudes]; iii) lichens (e.g. Bacidia rosella, Gyalecta derivata, Ramalina roesleri and Waynea stoechadiana); iv) mushrooms (e.g. Eichleriella leucophaea, only known location in Italy). Based on the scientific documentation produced in this study, these woods can be reported as “old-growth forests” to be included in the “National Network” that has been recently established in Italy (Ministerial Decree of 23 June 2023). This area might serve as an ideal control for urban environmental studies, given its pristine ecological setting.

Birch distribution and changes in stand structure in Sweden’s young forests

ABSTRACT Silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) and downy birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) are the two most common broadleaf species in Sweden, together making up approximately 12% of the standing timber volume. The two birch species are usually not distinguished in practice, although they tend to differ in terms of volume production, timber quality, and site preferences. To map the proportion of the two birch species in Sweden’s young forests, we used survey data from 123 stands 6–7 years after clearfelling, and data from Sweden’s meteorological and hydrological institute. We also examined Sweden’s young forests in terms of area, volume, and stem density between 1983 and 2021, using national forest inventory data. Proportions of the two birch species varied significantly across Sweden, and the average temperature sum over the first five years after clearfelling explained 72% of the variation. There was no significant change in area of forest classified as young forest in Sweden, over the last four decades, although there was a significant increase in volume and stem density in Sweden’s young forests, with birch making up most of the increase in stem numbers.

Forest Worker Households in the NFPP: Enhancing Sustainable Livelihoods through Capital and Transformation

The persistent conflict between strict conservation and community welfare highlights the growing need to address sustainable livelihoods in forest protection programs. The Natural Forest Protection Program (NFPP) is a comprehensive forest protection program spearheaded by the Chinese government. It is designed to facilitate the conservation and restoration of forest ecosystems through a range of interventions, including logging ban, management, tending, and afforestation efforts. Drawing upon longitudinal micro-level household survey data spanning five consecutive years from 2017 to 2021, this research quantifies the sustainable livelihood levels of frontline participants in the NFPP by examining two dimensions: livelihood capital stock and livelihood transformation capacity. Additionally, it investigates the internal differentiation phenomenon within this cohort. The findings suggest that forest worker households engaged in tasks related to forest management, tending, and afforestation are the frontline participants in the NFPP, in contrast to management, technical, and service personnel. Moreover, these forest worker households exhibit a pattern characterized by a higher livelihood capital stock but a lower livelihood transformation capacity compared to non-forest worker households. Furthermore, within forest worker households, there is a significant group differentiation phenomenon, resulting in inter-group differentials in the sustainable livelihood levels based on geographical and seniority stratification criteria. The developers of the global forest protection program should prioritize addressing the sustainable livelihood issues of frontline participants in the program, especially the real problem of mismatches between livelihood capital stock and livelihood transformation capacity. This can be achieved through designing income incentives, stimulating consumption, and other means to enhance the relatively disadvantaged position of frontline participants while balancing the coordination and fairness of the protection program based on the aspects of both protection and development.

Comprehensive analysis of gap formation in the canopy of an old-growth broadleaved forest

We performed a quantitative and qualitative assessment of the dynamics of gap formation in the canopy of intact old-growth polydominant broadleaved forest in a permanent sample area in the Kaluga Zaseki Nature Reserve. Digital elevation models were obtained from aerial survey data of the forest in 2018 and 2021, from which gap diagrams of several elevation classes were constructed. The resulting schematics were expertly analyzed using orthophotomosaic survey data and gap areas were estimated. We conducted a sample ground survey of gaps and regression analysis of the relationship between relative gap area and stand species composition from the primary enumeration data. It was shown that the phenophase at the time of the survey can significantly change the estimate of gap areas, and the height of the stand in the gap cannot serve as a reliable indicator of its age. It was also found that aerial photography reveals a more complex gap structure than ground-based surveys.

Predicting the potential distribution of Dendrolimus punctatus and its host Pinus massoniana in China under climate change conditions

IntroductionDendrolimus punctatus, a major pest endemic to the native Pinus massoniana forests in China, displays major outbreak characteristics and causes severe destructiveness. In the context of global climate change, this study aims to investigate the effects of climatic variations on the distribution of D. punctatus and its host, P. massoniana. MethodsWe predict their potential suitable distribution areas in the future, thereby offering a theoretical basis for monitoring and controlling D. punctatus, as well as conserving P. massoniana forest resources. By utilizing existing distribution data on D. punctatus and P. massoniana, coupled with relevant climatic variables, this study employs an optimized maximum entropy (MaxEnt) model for predictions. With feature combinations set as linear and product (LP) and the regularization multiplier at 0.1, the model strikes an optimal balance between complexity and accuracy.ResultsThe results indicate that the primary climatic factors influencing the distribution of D. punctatus and P. massoniana include the minimum temperature of the coldest month, annual temperature range, and annual precipitation. Under the influence of climate change, the distribution areas of P. massoniana and its pests exhibit a high degree of similarity, primarily concentrated in the region south of the Qinling−Huaihe line in China. In various climate scenarios, the suitable habitat areas for these two species may expand to varying degrees, exhibiting a tendency to shift toward higher latitude regions. Particularly under the high emission scenario (SSP5-8.5), D. punctatus is projected to expand northwards at the fastest rate. DiscussionBy 2050, its migration direction is expected to closely align with that of P. massoniana, indicating that the pine forests will continue to be affected by the pest. These findings provide crucial empirical references for region-specific prevention of D. punctatus infestations and for the rational utilization and management of P. massoniana resources.

Monitoring Changes in Composition and Diversity of Forest Vegetation Layers after the Cessation of Management for Renaturalization

Overstory and understory vegetation play a vital role in forest ecosystem functionality. However, it is necessary to enhance the knowledge of their diversity and compositional dynamics following cessation of disturbance, which is required to inform restoration approaches and the mechanisms required for maintaining disturbance cessation. We conducted a chronosequence spanning 0–1, 5–6, 11–12, 20–24, and 28–34 years since disturbance cessation, and old-growth forests to investigate the dynamic changes in overstory and understory vegetation diversity and composition, as well as maintenance mechanisms following the cessation of anthropogenic disturbances in subtropical regions of Eastern China. The current study results indicated a decrease in understory cover and periodic fluctuations in the diversity of overstorey and understory vegetation following disturbance cessation efforts. Specifically, the shrub layer exhibited the highest richness in 28–34 years, while the herb layer showed the lowest evenness. Multivariate analysis using multiple-response permutation procedures indicated that the species composition and interspecific quantity ratio of understory plants in the forest at 28–34 years significantly differ from those in the early closure stage. An indicator species analysis revealed that more support was given to sun-loving plants after 0–1 years of the enclosure, while species with shade tolerance and low nutrient requirements were supported after 28–34 years. The structural equation model results show that 38.8% of the impact on herb evenness was related to light and substrate diversity. The ecological restoration time mainly indirectly affects understory vegetation by influencing the upper vegetation, light availability, and substrate heterogeneity. Overall, this study revealed that cessation of anthropogenic disturbance can maintain and care for understorey plant diversity and contribute to the sustainable management of forests.

Forest conversion and timber certification in the public plantation estate of NSW: Implications at the landscape and policy levels

This paper investigates the clearance of native forests and native vegetation for plantation establishment, otherwise known as forest conversion, in the state-owned plantations of New South Wales, Australia. It begins by describing Australia’s forests, plantations, and forest conversion, continues with an outline of the history of public hardwood plantations in New South Wales, and explores the regulatory frameworks that allow this practice to happen, and the responses adopted by non-state environmental governance systems, notably forest certification, to address this problem. The paper presents a case study analysis of conversion in the hardwood plantations of northern NSW, and concludes that the current regulatory environment facilitates deforestation, with cumulative impacts at the landscape level, and that without government intervention, efforts to prevent this by non-state action will only be partially successful, leading to ongoing habitat and species loss. The failure of existing legislative and regulatory frameworks to adequately acknowledge, define, and prohibit conversion will remain an impediment to sustainable forest management, as the entry of such timber into the market contaminates supply chains, resulting in considerable reputation risk. Reform is needed in both public and private governance systems to ensure strong governance, effective planning, and ecosystem integrity at the landscape level. Recommendations are provided for policymakers.

Bat Activity on High Elevation Reforested Coal Mines in the Monongahela National Forest, West Virginia

Bat Activity on High Elevation Reforested Coal Mines in the Monongahela National Forest, West Virginia

Timberlines of the Greek high mountains: status quo at the turn of the millennium

The present review article provides an overview about the timberlines of the Greek high mountains. It informs about the existing tree species and about the altitude, physiognomy and dynamics of the timber-line ecotones. Subsequently, it gives an interpretation of the human influence and the geo-ecological fac-tors, which may have caused the altitudinal limit of tree growth in Greece. A latitudinal and local change in timberline-forming tree species creates high heterogeneity between the research areas and makes this their most remarkable feature. Moreover, in Greece there is no rise in timberline altitude from north to south. In some areas, fir-dieback causes a local decline in timberline altitude, which is the predominant dynamic process. An anthropogenic depression of the forest line is certainly common. Yet, a natural forest cover reaching up to the peak zones of the Greek high mountains is unthinkable. The identified timberline-forming factors and the prevailing site conditions speak against this. In accordance with the Mediterranean climate regime, it is obvious that not only the climatic conditions of winter (frost, snow) determine the limits of tree growth. The (macro- and micro) climatic impacts of summer (drought, high insolation) play a highly important role as well. Against this background, the climate-ecological hindrances to the establishment of trees, i.e. the germination and the survival of seedlings, are identified as key-factors for understanding the Hellenic timberlines (“regeneration hypothesis”). Against the back-ground of global warming, suggestions for further research on the ecology and dynamics of the Greek high mountain timberlines are provided. 

A Green Repository Matures at Kepong : the forest Research Institute of Malaysia

An overview of the history of establishment, characteristics and functions of the grounds of the Forest Research Institute of Malaysia at Kepong is presented. The Institute was functionally established at its Kepong premises in 1926, when the first forest plantations there were begun, and the arboretum was established in 1929 through the efforts of F. W. Foxworthy and J. G. Watson. Today, the premises at Kepong occupy a total area of some 600 hectares, including the natural forest of Bukit Lagong, the plantation forests and the special livmg-plant collections. The planted forests are a prime example of tropical reforestation using hardwood dipterocarp species. These plantations and the arboreta have been built up through a close association with research related-to forestry, plant biology and taxonomy, and the grounds are an important facility for conservation, education and recreation. Taken in toto. the entire premises are effective in conservation through the building up of viable, breeding populations of many plant species, and are significant as a sanctuary for animal life.Unlike the Indian Botanic Garden, which by 1987 woidd have celebrated two hundred years since establishment, the Kepong premises of the Forest Research Institute of Malaysia will see its bicentenary only in the year 2126. It seems a long way to go, and indeed it is. But botanic gardens and arboreta do not grow merely with age; they will only develop with continual maintenance, acquisition and renewal through time. It is, therefore, most pleasing to realize that the Indian Botanic Garden has been sustained for two centuries, and the Kepong premises is maturing after sity years, as scientific livmg-plant repositories.The living collections on the Kepong premises of the Forest Research Institute of Malaysia (FRIM) have not normally been equated to a botanical garden in its typical sense because of the general emphasis on arboriculture and species of interest to tree-oriented forestry. Although they are as purposeful and functional as any botanical garden in the tropics, the grounds of the FRIM are unique in several aspects and are well-recognised by tropical plant scientists as one of the major repositories for living plants in the region.

A network meta-analysis on responses of forest soil carbon concentration to interventions

BackgroundForests play a crucial role in absorbing CO2 from the atmosphere. 55% of the carbon in terrestrial ecosystems is stored in forests, with the majority of forest carbon stored in soil. To better understand soil organic carbon (SOC) of forests and to access interventions that affect their SOC concentration, we conducted a comparative analysis between natural and planted forests. Forest interventions refer to the actions taken by humans to manage, protect, or transform forests, and can be divided into two main categories: environmental intervention and anthropogenic intervention. This study focused on the effects of different interventions on SOC in natural and planted forests by reviewing a total of 75 randomized controlled trials in the global literature and extracting a total of 15 different interventions.ResultsThrough network meta-analysis, we found that natural forests have 22.3% higher SOC than planted forests, indicating their stronger carbon storage function. In natural forests, environmental interventions have a stronger impact. SOC is significantly influenced by forest age, fertilization, and elevation. In planted forests, however, anthropogenic interventions have a stronger impact. Pruning branches and fertilization are effective interventions for planted forests. Furthermore, forest degradation has a significantly negative impact on SOC in planted forests.ConclusionOverall, interventions to enhance soil carbon storage function differ between natural and planted forests. To address global climate change, protect biodiversity, and achieve sustainable development, it is imperative to globally protect forests and employ scientifically sound forest management practices. Regarding natural forests, the emphasis should be on comprehending the effects of environmental interventions on SOC. Conversely, concerning planted forests, the emphasis should be on comprehending the effects of anthropogenic interventions.

Contrasting carbon cycle responses to dry (2015 El Niño) and wet (2008 La Niña) extreme events at an Amazon tropical forest

Land surface models diverge in their predictions of the Amazon forest's response to climate change-induced droughts, with some showing a catastrophic collapse of forests, while others simulating resilience. Therefore, observations of tropical ecosystem responses to real-world droughts and other extreme events are needed. We report long-term seasonal dynamics of photosynthesis, respiration, net carbon exchange, phenology, and tree demography and characterize the effect of dry and wet events on ecosystem form and function at the Tapajós National Forest, Brazil, using over two decades of eddy covariance observations that include the 2015–2016 El Niño drought and La Niña 2008–2009 wet periods. We found strong forest responses to both ENSO events: La Niña saw forest net carbon loss from reduced photosynthesis (due to lower incoming radiation from increased cloudiness) even as ecosystem respiration (Reco) was maintained at mean seasonal levels. El Niño induced the opposite short-term effect, net carbon gains, despite significant reductions in photosynthesis (from a drought-induced halving of canopy conductance to CO2 and significant losses of leaf area), because drought suppression of Reco losses was even greater. However, long-term responses to the two climate perturbations were very different: transient during La Niña –the forest returned to its “normal” state as soon as the climate did, and long-lasting during El Niño –leaf area loss and associated declines in photosynthetic capacity (Pc) and canopy conductance were exacerbated and extended by feedbacks from higher temperatures and atmospheric evaporative demand and persisted for ∼3+ years after normal rainfall resumed. These findings indicate that these forests are more vulnerable to drought than to excess rain, because drought drives significant changes in forest structure (e.g., leaf-abscission and mortality) and ecosystem function (e.g. reduced stomatal conductance). As future Amazonian climate change increases frequencies of hydrological extremes, these mechanisms will determine the long-term fate of tropical forests.

Soil fungal community has higher network stability than bacterial community in response to warming and nitrogen addition in a subtropical primary forest.

Soil microbes play a very important role in maintaining the function and health of forest ecosystems. Unfortunately, global change factors are profoundly affecting soil microbial structure and function. In this study, we found that climate warming promoted bacterial network stability and nitrogen deposition decreased bacterial network stability. Changes in bacterial network stability had strong effects on bacterial community functional potentials linked to metabolism, nitrogen cycling, and carbon cycling, which would change the biogeochemical cycle in primary forests.

Using proxy data and vegetation modelling to predict past, current and future distributional shifts of Butea monosperma, a marker of land degradation in India

Extensive deviations in spatio-temporal social and environmental dynamics currently alter the health of ecosystems and the services they provide. Detecting the causes that contribute to the distribution of a natural forest species capable of restoring the lost ecosystem function and productivity will aid in determining better food security, livelihoods and provision of ecosystem goods and services. We modelled the spatial range of Butea monosperma (B. monosperma) under past, that is, Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), Middle Holocene (MH), current and future (2070) climatic scenarios with Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) trained on present-day occurrences. We identified areas of suitable habitats for which the estimation of habitat stability is predicted in all the models at different times. To validate the inferred suitable habitat, we tested the model by the current occurrence and fossil pollen data of B. monosperma. Our distribution models agree with the fossil pollen records for the MH (4,500–7,000 yr BP) and predict the prevalence of B. monosperma covering 84.22% of the Indian subcontinent with maximum habitat stability in western and southwestern India (10.95%). The widespread potential distribution of the plant species during the LGM supports the presence of the last remnants of tropical dry deciduous forest in the region. However, a decline in habitat suitability (62.84%) is predicted under current and future climatic scenarios with maximum stability (0.90%–3.09%) along the Western Ghats, Nilgiri hills, Gir range in the western India and north-eastern region covering the Assam Valley and foothills of Tripura and Mizo hills. Temperature seasonality (33.6%) measured in terms of variable contribution in MaxEnt model significantly affects the distribution shift of B. monosperma, along with annual precipitation (22.8%) and annual mean temperature (16.2%). Model results provide evidence of habitat reduction and identify the stability hotspots for B. monosperma for its conservation and establishment of land management policies mainly for the dry tropics.

Navigating Land Conservation, Utilization, and Market Solutions: Insights from the Lanyang River Watershed, Taiwan

In the current fraught relationship between nature and human society, land conservation and utilization have spawned intensive conflicts that require mediation. The present study explores this issue of coordination between nature and society in a fragile watershed located in northeastern Taiwan: the Lanyang River Watershed. Land zoning in this area has been historically classified and legally implemented, and additional development is constrained by an application review process. Currently, additional land utilization is still in demand in sensitive areas of this watershed, such as for mining and tilling. Due to the geographically, geologically, and climatically fragile characteristics of the watershed, the hillside residents have benefited from the conservation of nature with comprehensive ecosystem services but are at the forefront of the loss of life and property caused by forest ecosystem degradation. They are one of the key local resource users and main stakeholders. Applying the contingent valuation method to survey the hillside residents, the present study assessed the economic value they receive from the comprehensive ecosystem services offered by the natural forest ecosystems. Their opinions are explored using a survey on their awareness of ecosystem damage, their opinions on damage compensation, and on the feasible compensation channels for damage. As the study results ascertained the high value of the comprehensive ecosystem services continuously delivered by the conserved forest ecosystem, the study affirmed that conservation in the area classified and zoned as sensitive is an economic beneficial policy. With a high regard for ecosystem services and awareness of the impact of degradation and of the general agreement for the feasibility of channels of damage compensation, the continuity of conservation for these comprehensive ecosystem services is the preferred strategy for the local hillside residents. To emphasize this further, the opinions of the local community at the intersection of nature and society, where there is a delineated land zoning framework, strongly favor conservation over intensive resource exploitation and agricultural expansion, making further development an unfavorable strategy.