National Sport Organizations Research Articles

Power, Policy, and Political Priorities: Elite Sport Development in Canada and the United Kingdom

This article analyzes government and quasigovernmental agencies’ use of “planning dictates” in relationships with national sporting organizations (NSOs) in Canada and national governing bodies (NGBs) of sport in the United Kingdom (UK). Attention is drawn to the asymmetries of power contouring elite sport policy developments in both countries that, though unobservable in an empirical sense, nonetheless warrant investigation. The analysis draws on semistructured, in-depth interviews with key personnel in three Canadian NSOs and three UK NGBs in swimming, athletics, and sailing; senior officials at Sport Canada and UK Sport; and sport-policy analysts and academics. Although Canadian NSOs have been subject to such planning dictates for the past 20 to 30 years, the requirement for UK NGBs to comply in this way have only emerged since the mid-1990s. Accordingly, the article concludes with suggestions for further research in the UK.

Advocacy Coalitions and Elite Sport Policy Change in Canada and the United Kingdom

This paper explores the process of elite sport policy change in two sports (swimming and track and field athletics1) and their respective national sport organizations (NSOs) in Canada and national governing bodies of sport (NGBs) in the United Kingdom (UK). The nature of policy change is a complex and multifaceted process and a primary aim is to identify and analyse key sources ofpolicy change through insights provided by the advocacy coalition framework (ACF). In Canada, it is evident that the preoccupation with high performance sport over the past 30 years, at federal government level, has perceptibly altered over the past two to three years. In contrast, in the UK, from the mid-1990s onwards, there has been a noticeable shift towards supporting elite sport objectives from both Conservative and Labour administrations. Most notably, the ACF throws into sharp relief the part played by the state in using its resource control to shape the context within which debates on beliefs and values within NSOs/NGBs takes place. While the ACF has proved useful in drawing attention to the notion of changing values and belief systems as a key source of policy change, as well as highlighting the need to take into account factors external to the policy subsystem under investigation, potential additions to the framework’s logic are suggested for future applications.

Confirmatory factor analysis of the Sport Organizational Effectiveness Scale.

The purpose of this study was to examine the factorial validity of the 5-factor model of sport organizational effectiveness developed by Papadimitriou and Taylor. This questionnaire has 33 items which assess five composite effectiveness dimensions pertinent to the operation of sport organizations: calibre of the board and external liaisons, interest in athletes, internal procedures, long term planning, and sport science support. The multiple constituency approach was used as a theoretical framework for developing this scale. Data were obtained from respondents affiliated with 20 Greek national sport organizations with a questionnaire. Analysis indicated that the 5-factor model of effectiveness is workable in assessing the organizational performance of nonprofit sport organizations. The application of the multiple constituency approach in studying sport organizational effectiveness was also suggested.

Mapping Cultural Dimensions in Australian Sporting Organisations

No research focusing on sport has yet provided a method of charting culture's potential dimensions. The aim of this study was to redress this gap by identifying a set of dimensions that could describe the cultures of Australian sporting organisations. The population for this study included Australian National Sport Organisations (NSOs), State Sport Organisations (SSOs) and clubs participating in national league competitions. Eight sport organisations formed the sample. Data were collected via 24 in-depth interviews. This study revealed 12 dimensions and 68 sub-dimensions of culture, which may be used to begin the process of mapping sport cultures. These results reveal some unique sport dimensions with no single existing dimensional model that captures the collective elements revealed in this study. The unique dimensions revealed in this study include “Rituals”, “Symbols”, “Size”, “History and tradition”, with support for these dimensions found within the sub-dimensional codes. This suggests that the dimensions recorded here might provide a useful launching pad for future studies on sport culture.

Strategic Change and the Role of Interests, Power, and Organizational Capacity

The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of subunit interests, power arrangements, and organizational capacity in a program of radical transformation of a group of Canadian National Sport Organizations (NSOs). Using realtime data collected over a 12-year period, six case studies were constructed to provide insight into the role that these internal dynamics had on the propensity of organizations to change. Results showed that NSOs that completed the transformation possessed leadership with the technical and behavioral capacity for change, had an organizational structure in which volunteers were willing to share power with professional staff, and engaged in an all-encompassing transformation process that embraced the entire organization. By contrast, those NSOs that failed to complete the change lacked effective transformational leadership, had a structure in which power was retained centrally by volunteer board members, and were characterized by ongoing struggles among subunits to protect their own interests.

“A Strong Man Is Direct and a Direct Woman Is a Bitch”: Gendered Discourses and Their Influence on Employment Roles in Sport Organizations

Despite increasing numbers of women in senior sport management positions over the past 30 years, men still remain dominant in these roles, indicating a level of gender inequity within sport management. It is often assumed within sport organizations that women are well-matched for lower level management roles, whereas men are more suited to senior management roles. In order to understand perceptions held about women's and men's abilities related to sport management, it is necessary to understand and then analyze discourses, or dominant forms of knowledge, that influence various employment roles in sport organizations. After analyzing organizational documents and transcripts from interviews with 35 employees from three national sport organizations in England, it was found that senior management roles were heavily dominated by discourses of masculinity that are linked to men and are highly valued in sport organizations. In contrast, women and discourses of femininity are associated with employment roles that are undervalued within organizations. There is, however, the potential for resistance to these discourses on a number of levels and this is discussed with relation to one organization's commitment to change “taken for granted” assumptions about gendered employment roles in sport management.

The Role of the State in Sport Governance: An Analysis of Australian Government Policy

This paper examines the development and implementation of Australian government policy in relation to the governance of national sport organisations (NSOs). The paper discusses the efficacy of current policy initiatives aimed at improving the governance of NSOs, in particular the failure of government policy to examine a wider range of governance solutions for NSOs. The paper concludes by identifying areas for policy refinement and the need for further empirical research in to the governance.

The European integration of a new occupation, the training and education strategies of national professional organizations: the case of the fitness sector in France and the United Kingdom

The occupations of fitness managers and instructors - perhaps a new profession in embryo - have grown world-wide in response to the growing public demand for fitness services. Here the authors examine the strategies employed by French and UK professional bodies in their respective national contexts. In France sport is regarded as a public service, and the Ministry of Youth and Sport (MJS) has been the regulator of training and employment. Influenced by Britain, the commercial sector has grown, and the Syndicat National des Exploitants d' installations et de services sportifs (SNEISS) did not regard the existing qualifications, driven by national sports organizations, as adequate for the future of the industry. It encouraged the devising of a new diploma offered by a network of universities and accredited by the Ministry of Education (MEN). This has changed the dynamic of training, dispossessing the MJS and sports organizations of their monopoly. In the UK, sport is considered a private activity and small operators and chains of companies, more than in France, have grown. The Fitness Industry Association (FIA) is concerned to maintain quality standards in this expanding and fiercely competitive industry. It has sought to influence the government and the (employer- led) Sport and Recreation National Training Organization (SPRITO) in devising competencies and qualifications, and they have jointly launched a code of practice and a register of professionals. The SNEISS and the FIA are active in the new European Network Fitness Committee, but have not involved greatly the industry's workers. These developments show the interactions between the evolving European institutions and those at national level, but the demonstrably different national cultures clearly mean that a European profession and training regime will have to be negotiated against competing national influences.

INTERNATIONALISING SPORTS TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH AND EDUCATION IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGION

Sports technology and in particular sports engineering is a relatively new scholarly discipline although it has been around in terms of research and business for many years. The sporting goods industry and sport services industry have been more proactive in organising their respective sectors and in networking across sectors compared to the academic or research organisations. There is currently a void in the level of international networking at academic level in the area of sports technology, especially in the Asia-Pacific region which is the focus of this paper. The paper presents an overview of existing international and national sports organisations and reflects on the reasons sports technology research and education do not fit well in this context. A personal perspective is offered on how sports technology research and education could be enhanced through more appropriate networking at international level, especially in the Asia-Pacific region.

The Promotion of Physical Activity in the Elderly

Netherlands on the Move!: is an action program coordinated by the Netherlands Olympic Committee* Netherlands Sports Federation, in cooperation with the Dutch Heart Foundation, the Dutch Cancer Foundation, and the Foundation Youth on the Move! This action program is a joint venture with national, regional and local sports organizations. The age group elderly people of 55-plus is an important component of the whole program: 55-Plus on the Move! Netherlands on the Move!: aims at realizing the more (inactive) people become (more) active. This counts for people with and without chronic diseases. The formal goal of the program is: “Realization of a substantial incrase of the percentage of Dutch citizens that influence their health positive by an active lifestyle, with emphasis on regular and responsible exercise.” Examples of projects related to 55-plus on the Move! are Groninger Active Living Model (GALM), Ageing Well and Healthily, More Exercise for Seniors (MBvO). In this mini-symposium, information will be exchanged on the development of the action program. There will be emphasis on the evidenced based exercise programs and possibilities for use of these programs in relation to the National Blueprint “Increasing Physical Activity among adults age 50 and Older” in the United States.

Development of a taxonomy of performance for national sport organizations

The measurement of performance of a voluntary organization challenges man-agement theorists and practitioners. What are the effectiveness and efficiency criteria to evaluate performance of these organizations? To overcome the limi-tations of current methods of performance measurement, we propose a new performance measurement technique in a taxonomic perspective that associ-ates qualitative and quantitative indicators thanks to a contractual approach. This approach establishes a typology of 6 performance profiles of 40 NSO. Statistical correlations between performance dimensions are also analyzed. Statistical analysis shows that dimensions of performance are significantly correlated. Economic and financial performance is correlated more with pro-motional performance than with the number of members.

A Framework for the Analysis of Strategic Approaches Employed by Non-profit Sport Organisations in Seeking Corporate Sponsorship

Despite a continually growing body of literature that investigates the nature of corporate sponsorship of sport from the perspective of the donor, it is suggested that very little is known about how sport organisations are positioning themselves in their efforts to attract sponsors. Additionally, we argue that there has been limited effort in relating the sponsorship endeavours of sport organisations to the broader strategic management literature. This paper develops a framework that highlights the primary factors that underpin the ability of non-profit sport organisations to generate funding from the corporate sector. The analysis is based on data obtained from semi-structured interviews with marketing personnel in thirty-four Canadian national sport organisations (NSOs). Analysis of the data reveals two key environmental factors that appear to contribute to the ability of NSOs to raise sponsorship funds: media exposure and participation rates. The framework classifies sport organisations as belonging to one of five categorisations, based on their relative levels of these two factors. The discussion of the results provides an assessment of the ability of NSOs to influence these primary sponsorship success determinants. We suggest ways in which the framework developed here could be used in the future to further our understanding of the strategic nature of sponsorship acquisition.

Continuity and Change in Governance and Decision Making in National Sport Organizations: Institutional Explanations

The purpose of this paper was to broaden the discussion and debate about the continuity and change in the governance and decision making of Canada's NSOs and to develop arguments that address why institutional theory provides a strong foundation for advancing our understanding and management of this continuity and change. First, the theoritical contributions of institutional theorists are discussed. This is followed by a critical evaluation of previous institutional perspectives on change in Canada's NSOs. Then a description is given of three aspects of governance and decision making—the institutionalization of volunteer boards, the deinstitutionalization of volunteer control, and the semi-institutionalization of paid executive roles—that provides an alternative institutional explanation of continuity and change in governance and decision making in NSOs. The paper concludes with some suggestions for future research and a consideration of the implications for practice.

Organisational Effectiveness of Hellenic National Sports Organisations: A Multiple Constituency Approach

This study applies the multiple constituency model of organisational effectiveness to a sample of Hellenic national sports organisations (NSOs). A 33-item inventory of effectiveness was developed and tested to reflect the common effectiveness-related perceptions of six constituent groups: board members, paid administrative staff, national coaches, elite athletes, international officials, and scientific consultants. Four hundred and twenty-three respondents from 20 NSOs participated in the study. Factor analysis resulted in the extraction of five composite effectiveness variables: calibre of the board and external liaisons, interest in athletes, internal procedures, long-term planning, and sport science support. The multivariate and univariate tests of variance revealed that athletes, coaches and scientific staff are the least satisfied groups, while international officials and board members produce the most favourable ratings of effectiveness. Results suggest the value of using a multiple constituency approach when examining the effectiveness of national sports organisations.

Professionalization and Organizations of Mixed Rationales: The Case of Finnish National Sport Organizations

Professionalization and Organizations of Mixed Rationales: The Case of Finnish National Sport Organizations

INTEGRATING SOCIAL ACTION AND STRUCTURAL CONSTRAINTS

A number of researchers have examined structural and systemic change within Canada's national sport organizations. The predominant approach within these studies has been to identify environmental factors, primarily the state, as the cause of change. We argue that there has been an overemphasis on the role of the environment in directing the change process and suggest that a more integrated view is needed. Consequently, our paper focuses on understanding change by integrating institutional theory, a deterministic approach to explaining organizational transformations, and the more voluntaristic notion of strategic choice. A case-study approach is used to examine the organizational changes that occurred within a Canadian amateur ice hockey organization. Our results show the importance of institutional pressures, strategic choice and the interconnectedness of both these factors in the change process. Three specific issues are raised: the temporal dimension to the scope of strategic choice; the manner in which structures that are initially constraining can become resources; and the impact of conditions of uncertainty on determinism and voluntarism.

Influence in Canadian National Sport Organizations: Perceptions of Professionals and Volunteers

The literature suggests that the professionalization of sport has resulted in erosion of the decision-making power of volunteer administrators. However, little research has examined the extent to which volunteer and paid administrators may differ in their perceptions of influence in decision making. The purpose of this study was to investigate the perceptions of influence in organizational decisions and to determine if they were related to decision areas at the board level in Canadian National Sporting Organizations. Results indicated that influence in decision making was not perceived as reciprocal; some areas of decision making were perceived to be the domain of either the professionals or volunteers; and professionals wanted the relationship to be more equal. Implications include the consequences for volunteers as the more dependent partner in the relationship, the potential for improved organizational decision making, and the recognition that the policy development/implementation split between volunteers and professionals may be too simplistic.

The impact of institutionalized resources, rules and practices on the performance of non-profit sport organizations

The paper focuses on the external pressures and constraints which impinge upon the performance of non-profit sport organizations. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected from 20 Hellenic national sport organizations, which operate in a highly institutionalized context as they are regularly funded and controlled by the state agency for sport. The results demonstrate a restrictive resource dependence on the state, which is accompanied by a lack of performance inducements, poorly defined technical arrangements and state intervention in sport-related activities. The low performance of the sport organizations is explained in terms of the influence of the institutional processes on their internal organizational behaviour.

Does Decision Making Make a Difference? Patterns of Change Within Canadian National Sport Organizations

The theoretical rationale underpinning this study was that decision making structures are tightly coupled to the core values of organizations and thus have a high impact on organizational design change. Taking a fine-grained approach to the analysis of decision making, the purpose of this study was to determine whether amateur sport organizations have shifted away from the dominant paradigm of volunteer-led decision making in favor of professional staff authority and autonomy over strategic decisions. Data from a population of 36 Canadian national sport organizations were used to show that changes in decision making have occurred. However, the shift in control from volunteers to professionals has not been established. In addition, change in decision making varied according to the direction of change, the decision making dimension, and the decision topic.

The Relationship of Transactional and Transformational Leadership to the Organizational Effectiveness of Dutch National Sport Organizations

The Relationship of Transactional and Transformational Leadership to the Organizational Effectiveness of Dutch National Sport Organizations