National Sport Organizations Research Articles

Leader Perceptions of Management by Values Within Canadian National Sport Organizations

This study examined sport leaders’ perceptions of the use of stated values in the management and performance of their organization. Qualitative data were collected from nine Canadian national sport organizations (NSOs) in a multiple-case studies design, involving analysis of interview transcripts. Results indicated that while many of the NSOs operated from a traditional management by objectives approach, they perceived management by values (MBV) as being important and contributing to enhanced organizational performance. Leaders indicated that more efforts to engage staff members in developing core organizational values and to strategically use values in day-to-day management practice were required. A 4-I Framework describing how an NSO can progress through different stages of strategically using values in management practice was developed. NSO leaders also voiced an interest in embedding organizational values into NSO strategic and other planning processes.

More of the same instead of qualitative leaps: A study of inertia in the Swedish sports system

Between 2007 and 2011, the Swedish government added 50 million Euro per year to the budget of the Swedish Sports Confederation (RF) for a Sports for All programme (SfA), Idrottslyftet (The Lift for Sport), with the aim of engaging more children and youth, especially those from underrepresented groups. The programme manifesto stated that all activities should be based on gender and equality perspectives and be permeated by the regular RF policy program, Idrotten vill (What sports want). In this article, we discuss mechanisms of change and inertia in the Swedish sports system by applying path dependency theory on results achieved in Idrottslyftet. Findings are based on three data sources from five National Sports Organisations (NSOs) (Swedish Budo & Martial Arts Federation, Swedish Floorball Federation, Swedish Gymnastics Federation, Swedish Ski Association and Swedish Sports Organisation for the Disabled); the data include their development plans, interviews with key personnel and granted project applications from sports clubs during the programme’s first and third year (N = 2,563). Overall, the study shows that when considering decisions and activities undertaken by the government, RF and the NSOs little has been done to enable change and to avoid inertia. The NSOs have mainly provided funds to applications that focus on recruiting instead of on applications with a qualitative approach focusing on changing activities for children and youth. Furthermore applications focused on only a few of the guidelines in Idrotten vill and lacked in general gender and equality perspectives. Our main conclusion is that projects carried out in sports clubs strengthen ongoing activities rather than being an engine for qualitative leaps in developing activities for engaging more children and youth. Finally, we note that path dependency theory has been a fruitful tool for analysing the results from Idrottslyftet. The theory has significantly contributed to a deeper understanding of inertia within the Swedish sports system.

Overuse Injuries and Burnout in Youth Sports

Overuse Injuries and Burnout in Youth Sports

The legal status of disciplinary regulations in sport

International and national sports organisations have created extensive regulatory frameworks to govern their activities. Associated athletes and clubs are required to comply with the rules set by these organisations. If they do not abide by the rules, a disciplinary sanction can be imposed. Regulating sports is, however, not an easy exercise. Due to the many different actors involved legal issues are numerous and complex. By its nature, sport is not a national affair. As the best athletes and clubs compete on an international level, when a disciplinary sanction is imposed, this can have effects on international competition. Therefore, this article will provide a comparative and transnational overview of the main legal framework in which national and international sports organisations operate according to Dutch, English, French, German and Swiss law. The article will provide an answer to the question whether a ‘level playing field’ exists in European organised sports with regard to the legal status of disciplinary regulations.

Sport and recreation spatial: Development of a national geographical information system for the sport and recreation sector

Introduction: The Sport and Recreation Spatial project is a collaborative partnership between national and state sport, recreation, health, government and university organisations. It involves the development of a geographical information system (GIS) for presenting spatial data relevant to all levels of the sport and recreation sector.

Analysing gender dynamics in sport governance: A new regimes-based approach

This paper explores gender dynamics in sport governance with reference to boards of National Sport Organisations (NSOs) in Australia. It is based on a recent study, underpinned by governance and gender theory. Central is the notion of a gender regime, which is characterised by four interwoven dimensions: production, power, emotional and symbolic relations. When applied to governance dynamics in sport boards, this concept permits identification of how gender works. The study involved an audit of 56 NSOs and in-depth interviews with board directors and chief executive officers (n=26; 9 women and 17 men) from five NSOs. This paper reports on the results of three NSOs. The data suggest that directors’ participation in sport governance was not uniform in terms of gender dynamics. Three gender regimes were identified: masculine hegemony, masculine hegemony in transition and gender mainstreaming in process. Only the latter provided significant opportunities for gender equality in governance while the former two imposed significant constraints. Central to the regime associated with gender equal governance was a combination of presence of women on the board, the occupation of influential board roles by women, active support of women directors by influential men on the board and a commitment to equality in governance as equal participation by both men and women.

Understanding the Significance of Revenue Diversification in Nonprofit Sports Clubs

Nonprofit sports organizations at ‘grass-roots’ are essential for the growth of sport. Often at the heart of their communities, they also encourage active participation and social engagement (Misener & Doherty, 2009). Yet provision of facilities required to deliver these grass-roots opportunities are increasingly costly (Nichols et al., 2005) potentially outstripping revenue from membership dues, trading activities, sponsorships and grants. While in some sports codes national sports organizations (national sports organisations) support local clubs through grant funding and services, other clubs maintain financial sustainability by drawing on predominantly local sources, by restricting opportunities for sport, or by borrowing. Insufficient revenue is a critical factor which leads to one in three German amateur sports to clubs reporting deficits (Wicker & Breuer, 2010). This is detrimental to the long-term sustainability of these clubs. In the wider nonprofit arena, Chang and Tuckman (1996) argued that organizations with more diversified revenue bases were more likely to enjoy stable financial positions. This thesis has been further tested along with the converse proposition, that the ongoing financial sustainability of nonprofit organizations is impacted negatively when revenue generation is concentrated on a small number of potentially unpredictable sources. Sectors in which have been analysed include charities (Carroll & Stater, 2009; Greenlee & Trussel, 2000; Trussel & Greenlee, 2001; Trussel, 2002), and arts organizations (Hager, 2001). While in the Chang and Tuckman (1996) study of revenue concentration included a small selection of sports organizations, nonprofit (amateur) sports clubs have been largely ignored by this academic literature. The objective of this research is to consider the extent to which the proposition of Chang and Tuckman was evident in nonprofit sports clubs. The revenue streams of these clubs are likely to differ in source from entities analysed in prior studies, due to the input of members. It is important to assess the degree to which these ‘grass-roots’ clubs’ revenue is concentrated, the drivers for dependence and tactics to reduce such dependence. The findings of this research should assist clubs’ management boards to reduce deficits through revenue generation strategies, and stimulate research in other nonprofit sectors on this and related issues. To summarise: generating sufficient funding from a diversity of revenue streams is a critical issue for nonprofit sports organizations. Chang and Tuckman had proposed in 1996 that organizations with more diversified revenue bases were more likely to enjoy financial stability. The objective of this research is to consider the extent to which this proposition was evident in nonprofit sports clubs; and to assess the degree to which ‘grass-roots’ (amateur) sports clubs’ revenue is concentrated, as well as identify tactics to reduce dependence on limited sources. Quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed from: cricket, field hockey, golf, netball, rugby football and squash clubs, with financial data derived from 360 annual reports. Most clubs sought revenue from ‘traditional’ means and were risk averse rather than being risk-takers when it came to revenue diversification. The findings of this research will assist clubs’ management boards to better manage any trends towards deficits through revenue generation strategies.

Effectiveness of Start to Run, a 6-week training program for novice runners, on increasing physical activity: A controlled study

Introduction: The organized sport sector has been identified as a potential setting for physical activity promotion. In the Netherlands, national sporting organizations were funded to develop and implement sporting programs that are easy accessible, especially for the least active population groups. Start to Run, a 6-week training program for novice runners, developed by the Dutch Athletics Organization, is one of these programs. In this study, the effects of Start to Run on physical activity were investigated.

Factors facilitating and inhibiting implementation of easy accessible sporting programs

Introduction: The organized sport sector has been identified as a potential setting for physical activity promotion. In The Netherlands, ten national sporting organizations were funded to develop and implement easy accessible sporting programs, especially for the least active population groups. A total of fourteen programs were implemented during a three year implementation period. For a successful implementation of these sporting programs, insight into factors facilitating or inhibiting implementation was needed. Methods: The study consisted of four phases. Phase one: In annual face-to-face interviews, representatives of the ten sporting organizations were asked about factors facilitating or inhibiting implementation of their programs. The results were yearly used by the Dutch Olympic Committee to facilitate implementation of the programs. Phase two: The most important factors were grouped according to implementation phase (concept development, organizational preparations, recruiting local sporting organizations, recruiting participants, local implementation, securing program for future). Phase three: The results were presented and discussed during a meeting with representatives of all ten sporting organizations. Factors were eventually added or removed. Additionally, it was discussed how to deal with these factors. Phase four: Based on the meeting, a final overview of factors was made, incorporating advise how to deal with these factors. Results: Although factors varied by sporting program, there were some factors that were commonly mentioned. Important facilitating factors were: a program meeting the needs of potential participants (concept development), a program that is easy to perform locally (local implementation), an enthusiastic and persistent project coordinator (organizational preparations) and collaboration with other organizations (e.g. recruiting participants). Not complying with these factors, inhibited implementation. Factors that were specifically mentioned as inhibiting factors were: implementing a costly program (recruiting local organizations) and a conservative attitude of local organizations (recruiting local organizations). Discussion: The overview of factors, as well as the accompanying advise, can be used by sporting organizations when developing and implementing easy accessible sporting programs. This will facilitate development and implementation of current and future sporting programs. (aut. ref.)

In Pursuit of Understanding What Drives Fan Satisfaction

With economic considerations exerting an ever-increasing influence on soccer clubs’ activities, fan satisfaction becomes an essential strategic management objective for these institutions. Despite this topic’s obvious relevance, the literature has paid little attention to the measurement of fan satisfaction. Based on a thorough literature review, as well as interviews with soccer fans and industry experts, this paper develops an analytical model for measuring soccer fan satisfaction (FANSAT). A large-scale sample of soccer fans permits subsequent application of the FANSAT approach. The impact-performance map results of the driver analysis show that stadium features, aspects of the stadium, club management, and fan-based support for the club are the most important determinants of fan attendance. The results of this study provide implications of major relevance for international sports organizations, national sports organizations, and clubs. FANSAT is useful beyond this application, and other sports disciplines can adopt this tool for measuring and improving their fans’ satisfaction.

Targeted investments in elite sport funding: wiser, more innovative and strategic?

Targeting funds to a select ‘few’ organisations is an increasingly recognised principle of government funding distributions for elite sport. This paper explores the principles of performance-based targeting in sport and traces its historical development alongside New Public Management reforms. Drawing from data in New Zealand, it is suggested that targeting schemes generate unintended consequences including: (a) the paradoxical tendency for the central agency to be blamed for having too much control over sport and for not being sufficiently accountable for results and (b) the propensity for National Sport Organisations (NSOs) to become less innovative over time due to increased accountability requirements and tighter monitoring. Each carries implications. The former reminds us that broader political risks cannot be ruled out, and may effectively negate targeting's promise of allocative efficiency and responsiveness. The latter warns that such regimes may hinder organisational learning and induce NSOs to follow ‘best practice’ at the expense of developing new best practice.

An examination of the importance of performances in youth and junior competition as an indicator of later success in tennis

Talent identification at a young age is deemed essential for many national sporting organisations to increase the chances of success for their players on the international stage. Talent identification methods can be imprecise and national tennis associations and coaches often identify talent based on performances at youth tournaments and junior rankings. However, not much is known about the relationship between the international competition performances of young tennis players and later success. This relationship is explored in this study using comparisons based on: (a) the results of 3521 players at U14 youth tournaments; (b) the rankings of 377 junior players (U18) by the International Tennis Federation; (c) the rankings of 727 professional male players by the Association of Tennis Professionals; and (d) the rankings of 779 professional players by the Women's Tennis Association. Junior performances (U18) and performances at youth tournaments (U14) appear to have a low success rate in predicting later success. No distinct age was found at which players should start to perform in order to be successful at the professional level. It is concluded that even though good performances at young ages increase athletes’ chances to become elite players, they are not a precondition for achieving later success. Therefore, this study informs talent scouts, sport development officers, coaches and high performance managers of the role that performances at international youth competitions may play in talent identification in tennis.

Sport, media and the Gaelic Athletic Association: the quest for the ‘youth’ of Ireland

Social developments and related dynamic relationships connected with the sports–media complex is a recurrent focus of sociological investigation. However, in explaining developments in the relationship between sports associations and media organizations the specific structure of power relations between them and other related organizations is often given primacy. We argue that this negates how changes in people’s social habitus – how people think feel and act – are interconnected with and critical to such explanations. Consequently, in this article we apply the theoretical frame of figurational sociology to demonstrate how the gradual development and expansion of specialist communications and media functions in a national sports organization were impelled by several intertwined social processes, including changes in people’s social habitus. Our empirical case study is based on one of the largest sporting and cultural organizations in Ireland, the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA). We explain how the GAA felt compelled to increasingly deploy a range of communications, media and marketing specialists in the struggle for media space and as a means to engage, understand and connect with the more nuanced tastes of Irish ‘youth’.

A grounded theory of psychological resilience in Olympic champions

ObjectiveAlthough it is well-established that the ability to manage stress is a prerequisite of sporting excellence, the construct of psychological resilience has yet to be systematically examined in athletic performers. The study reported here sought to explore and explain the relationship between psychological resilience and optimal sport performance. Design and methodTwelve Olympic champions (8 men and 4 women) from a range of sports were interviewed regarding their experiences of withstanding pressure during their sporting careers. A grounded theory approach was employed throughout the data collection and analysis, and interview transcripts were analyzed using open, axial and selective coding. Methodological rigor was established by incorporating various verification strategies into the research process, and the resultant grounded theory was also judged using the quality criteria of fit, work, relevance, and modifiability. Results and conclusionsResults indicate that numerous psychological factors (relating to a positive personality, motivation, confidence, focus, and perceived social support) protect the world’s best athletes from the potential negative effect of stressors by influencing their challenge appraisal and meta-cognitions. These processes promote facilitative responses that precede optimal sport performance. The emergent theory provides sport psychologists, coaches and national sport organizations with an understanding of the role of resilience in athletes’ lives and the attainment of optimal sport performance.

Management training and national sport organization managers: Examining the impact of training on individual and organizational performances

Within sport, a tremendous amount of effort is committed to the on-the-field performance of athletes and coaches, neglecting the off-the-field performance and development of sport managers. This study examines the impact of human resource training on the performance of five Canadian national sport organizations (NSO) and their managers (N=22). Data were collected on three outcome variables (learning, individual performance, organizational performance) and three mediating variables (motivation to transfer, training design, organizational climate) at three time measures (pretraining, post-training1, post-training2). Results indicate that training improves the learning and individual performance of sport managers, as well as the organizational performance of NSOs. Varying relationships were found at each of the three time measures, demonstrating that a progression to training-related performance change exists. Implications and future research directions are discussed and highlighted the need for on-going training opportunities for Canadian sport managers.

Positive Organizational Psychology in Sport: An Ethnography of Organizational Functioning in a National Sport Organization

The 9-month ethnography reported here investigated the critical factors underpinning organizational functioning in a national sport organization. The findings illustrate the pivotal importance of interpersonal relationships and highlight the emergence of emotion-related abilities as highly influential in successful person-organization dynamics. Specifically, these related to managing conflict, communicating emotion, managing and expressing emotion for the psychological contract, contagious emotion regulation, and emotion regulation for building strong relationships. Individuals better able to monitor and manage their own emotions and those of others were able to develop and maintain more successful interpersonal relationships during a period of organizational change.

Good Boards Are Strategic: What Does That Mean for Sport Governance?

To learn more about the governance of sport organizations, this study explored what meaning board members of national sport organizations (NSOs) attach to the concept of “strategic capability”. In so doing, the inquiry also identified factors considered to constrain or enable board strategic function. This paper draws on a body of knowledge developed over 38 years on board strategic function, primarily from the commercial setting but also from the emerging body of work in the nonprofit and sport governance setting. Located within the interpretive research paradigm this study engaged a range of different qualitative methods including cognitive mapping and visual imagery. Working across two NSOs in New Zealand, four elements were generated that served as reference points in mapping out the meaning of a strategically able board. These were categorized as the need to have capable people, a frame of reference, facilitative board processes, and facilitative regional relationships.

Deaflympics and the Paralympics: eradicating misconceptions

This article adds to the limited literature about the world of Deaf sport. It argues that deafness is not viewed within the Deaf community as a disability, and highlights the importance of Deaf culture and the shared meaning of being Deaf. The article then goes on to look at the debates around the Deaflympics, and the important role that this independent competition can play for Deaf athletes. The article addresses the problems that arise when it is argued that Deaf athletes, and thus the Deaflympics and national Deaf sport organizations, should be assimilated into the Paralympic Games under the umbrella of disability sport. This position has severely affected many national Deaf sports organizations and their ability to develop and fund their Deaflympics athletes. The history of the relationships between the Deaflympics and the Paralympics, and the International Committee of Sports for the Deaf and the International Paralympic Committee are also discussed.

Football, the new battlefield of business in Algeria: Djezzy and Nedjma …RANA MĀK YA AL-KHDRA

1The recent crisis between Algeria and Egypt over the qualifying campaign for the 2010 FIFA World Cup has brought to the surface new challenge to the ideology of Arab unity. This event has had a direct impact on the business of Mobile Telecom in the Algerian market. The paper provides a useful lens through which one can identify the shift in the business and politics of football in the current transition phase of Algeria towards a market economy. It also looks at the role of identity politics in the Algerian economy through the analysis of Algerian media accounts of sport marketing strategies and business competitions of two of Algeria's private mobile phone operators, Djezzy (a subsidy of the Egyptian company Orascom) and Nedjma (a subsidy of the Qatari-Kuwaiti company al-Watania). Both companies have dominated the sponsorship of sport clubs and national sport organisations in Algeria. The paper reveals some of the risks and opportunities of associating corporate branding strategies with nationalist sentiments surrounding sport in general and football in particular as well as the instable business and political networking around private investments in the Arab world.

Failed Contracting: Lessons Learned from False Starts with National, State and Local Sport Organizations

This article outlines steps that can be taken by certified sport psychology consultants to reduce false starts in consulting relationships with sport governing bodies by working through the phases of contracting that include the interest, education and decision phases of the process. Recommendations for effective contracting are made so future working relationships are clearer, create more shared value and lead effective consultation experiences.