National Renewable Energy Action Plans Research Articles

Policy Analysis of the Challenges to an Effective Switch to Low-Carbon Energy in the Economic Community of West African States

In Africa, switching to renewable energy sources with low carbon emissions is becoming more popular. In the Economic Community of West African states (ECOWAS), the low-carbon energy transition must overcome significant obstacles, including those posed by policies put in place and their implementation. In order to replace the current fossil fuel-driven economy with low-carbon development that also advances the regional aims and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), this paper analyzes the current policy landscape in the region. A total of 75 policies from four categories (energy access, energy efficiency, renewable energy, climate change) were chosen for the policy review. Multicriteria decision analysis and a thorough review of the literature have shed light on how well the policies of the ECOWAS countries could promote low-carbon development and what the main challenges to overcome are. The last step was the comparison of the progress of the two key policies in the region: the National Energy Efficiency Action Plan (NEEAP) and National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP). The results illustrate the amount of work still needing to be done in the region, with only 26 of the 75 policies receiving a score above 50. However, the prospect of a better energy strategy that adequately considers the difficulties of the energy transition is possible, given the progress made by the region’s nations since the creation of national action plans for energy efficiency (EE) and renewable energy (RE). Our analysis has also shown that countries like Senegal have obtained quite promising results, as evidenced by the best scores of 76.88 and 73.25, respectively, obtained by its NREAP and NEEAP policies.

CURRENT STATE AND PROSPECTS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF BIOETHANOL AND BIODIESEL MARKET IN UKRAINE

Wide use of motor biofuels, primarily advanced ones, is one of the effective ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in transport, a sector that is difficult to decarbonize. The European Green Deal, adopted by the EU at the end of 2019, aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 55% in 2030 compared to 1990 and to achieve climate neutrality in Europe by 2050. At the same time, about a third of the intermediate goal of 2030 falls specifically to the transport sector. As part of implementing the European Green Deal, it is planned to raise the share of renewable energy sources in transport from the current more than 10% to 24% in 2030. Ukraine as a potential member of the EU will join the implementation of the European Green Deal in the future. Therefore, now it is already necessary to be actively engaged in the decarbonization of transport as an important component of green transition activities. The national renewable energy action plan until 2020 had set the goal of reaching 10% of renewable sources in energy consumption in transport, while in reality this figure came to only 2.47% in 2020. Obviously, this sector of Ukraine’s bioenergy needs special attention and efforts for its further development, and the promising direction is increasing production and consumption of liquid motor biofuels. The purpose of the work is to elaborate a basic scenario for the development of the biodiesel and bioethanol market in Ukraine detailing individual types of biofuel. The forecasting carried out in this study is founded on the basic approaches and assumptions laid down in the Roadmap for bioenergy development in Ukraine until 2050 elaborated by the Bioenergy Association of Ukraine in 2020. Main global trends in the biofuels sector have been also taken into account. A comprehensive assessment of the current and prospective bioenergy potential in Ukraine was carried out in terms of potential types of feedstock for obtaining liquid biofuels. Prospective volumes of production and internal consumption of motor biofuels were specified breaking down the data by biofuels type (biodiesel, bioethanol) and generation (first and second generation). A technical and economic assessment of the production of various types of motor biofuels for Ukraine’s conditions was performed. The obtained results show that the production of bioethanol from corn grain and biodiesel from used cooking oil is feasible today. In order to achieve profitable production of bioethanol from lignocellulosic feedstock, as well as biodiesel from rapeseed, it is necessary to find ways to reduce capital and operating costs of such plants or introduce target state support.

Assessment of the supply and demand function of hydropower energy industry: Fresh empirical evidence from the EU region

The hydropower industry is a crucial catalyst for improving the National Renewable Energy Action Plans (NREAPs) and mitigating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in line with the Renewable Energy Directive of the European Union. Hydropower has been described as one of the most scalable electricity generations, enabling the incorporation of variable production for wind and solar energy systems. Nonetheless, despite ensuring that hydropower production securely matches demand in the real-time market, uncertainty about investment cost and concession rights continue to impede the achievement of the goal. The study used the supply and demand functions to analyse the market hydropower energy industry in the EU from 1990-2018. The research employed two-stage least square (2SLS) and autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) models for the analyses. The outcomes of the supply side indicated that an increase in input resource (precipitation) and hydropower price are essential factors influencing the growth in hydropower supply in the EU region. By contrast, the result reveals that a rise in input cost discourages more hydropower energy production in the EU. As for the demand side, statistical findings have shown that income is directly associated with the demand for hydropower. Whereas an increase in the price of hydropower energy causes reductions in demand. More importantly, we find solar energy to be a substitute for hydropower in the EU region. The results of the forecasted hydropower market demonstrate that supply would be enough to cater to hydropower consumption in the European Union region until 2030. A typical pumped-hydro for supply-push is needed for managing prices during off and peak load situations. There is also a need to streamline the variable cost of topology and geography when constructing a Dam. This study recommends that the EU expand and make hydropower transmission from the grid a national project to be easily accessible for consumption.

How Is Social Acceptance Reflected in National Renewable Energy Plans? Evidence from Three Wind-Rich Countries

This article contributes to discussions of the social acceptance of renewable energy (RE) by developing an analytical framework that considers three dimensions (community, market, and political-regulator) at three different scales (macro, meso, and micro). This framework is conceived in order to identify those dynamics that are potentially counterproductive to the energy transition and need further policy emphasis, as well as supporting those that demonstrate a positive impact. Using this framework, we critically reflect on the 2010 National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP) policies of three European countries with high wind resources: Denmark, Ireland, and the UK. Within the RE policy landscapes of these three countries lies the contentious issue of social acceptance of wind power. The framework analysis reveals similar policy profiles for each country, characterized by a heavy focus on the market dimension at all scales, an effort to allow private business to steer the transition, and a low focus on the community dimension. In doing so, our research reveals how policy-making processes have privileged the voice of actors who are able to communicate quantifiable data and evidence to support their position, and these actors thereby have greater influence to shape national energy policies.

Bulgarian Renewable Energy in the Context of the Contemporary Trends

The aim of the article is to analyze the results of the Bulgarian renewable energy policy in the context of the EU aims and global renewable energy system (RES) investments till 2014. The policy is examined through comparison of the aims as stated in the National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP) of Bulgaria and the achieved results. They are evaluated in respect of renewables share in final energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, and household access to green energy sources. The main outcomes show a low level of decentralized energy generation and pressure upon electricity price increase.

Інноваційно-інвестиційна діяльність у розвитку альтернативних джерел енергії: фактори впливу

The article defines and systematizes the factors of innovation and investment activity in the development of alternative energy sources, followed by the separation of those groups of factors that have a dominant influence on the processes of ensuring innovation and investment activity in the development of alternative energy sources. The volumes of global investments in alternative energy sources are analyzed, in particular, it is determined that wind energy and biofuels have become the most investment attractive to foreign investors. It is identified that solar energy is characterized by rapid development and has the largest scale of construction of new capacities in Ukraine. The comparison of real indicators of renewable energy sources with the planned ones in accordance with the National Renewable Energy Action Plan until 2020 and the Energy Strategy of Ukraine until 2035 «Security, Energy Efficiency, Competitiveness» was carried out. It is determined that Ukraine, although it lags behind the global pace of implementation of the use of renewable energy sources, still has a tendency to reduce the consumption of traditional fuels, in particular imported natural gas. It is substantiated that at the center of the multidimensional system of factors of innovation and investment development of alternative energy sources should be the purpose of satisfying the interests of each individual citizen as the driving force of the necessary reforms on the effective use of territorial resources, as well as to ensure the sustainable development of the country. It is emphasized that precisely the innovative nature of development should cover a comprehensive study of all factors that are part of the relevant field of scientific knowledge, the achievement of scientific and technological progress, efficient socio-economic and environmental technologies. The need to focus on finding solutions and substantiating the effectivity of the implementation of alternative energy of the entire accumulated human, production and technological potential is determined. It is emphasized that the effective and dynamic use of alternative energy sources for Ukraine is a strategically important task, the solution of which will reduce the anthropogenic load on the environment, as well as increase the number of jobs, financial revenues to budgets of all levels, which, in turn, will lead to the sustainable development of the region and the country as a whole.

Modeling and planning of the electricity energy system with a high share of renewable supply for Portugal

The electrical supply system of Mainland Portugal is primarily responsible for 25% of the country’s CO2 emissions. The principal reason for these high CO2 emissions is the significant dependence on coal power plants, which account for approximately 30% of the overall electricity generation. In 2018, to ensure CO2 emissions reduction, the Portuguese Government presented the “National Renewable Energy Action Plan for 2030”, a strategic proposal for the sustainable development of the Portuguese economy through the decommissioning of fossil power plants. This study presents, on the Portuguese mainland scale, electricity system technical solutions for achieving CO2 emissions reduction, using the guidelines of the Portuguese Government plans for the upcoming decades, and a high share of renewable energy supply. The technical solutions were achieved using an hourly electricity balance via the EnergyPLAN software. The study also identifies the minimal load capacity value of thermal power plants required to maintain the security levels of the Portuguese electrical system and highlights the importance of pumping hydropower plants for the integration of variable renewable electricity sources.

ROADMAP FOR BIOENERGY DEVELOPMENT IN UKRAINE UNTIL 2050

The purpose of the work is to elaborate a concept of Roadmap for bioenergy development of Ukraine, which outlines the goals and prospects of the bioenergy sector until 2050. The proposed Roadmap is an essential document for the country for several factors. First, it determines the contribution of bioenergy to meeting Ukraine’s international commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions under the Paris Climate Agreement of 2015. Second, the Roadmap shows ways to achieve existing bioenergy development goals until 2035. Third, the Roadmap can be used to elaborate the National Renewable Energy Action Plan until 2030 and the Concept of state policy on energy and environment, as well as to revise the Ukraine’s current Energy Strategy with an extension until 2050. The baseline approaches of Roadmap for bioenergy development of Ukraine until 2050 are in line with the basic principles of the Ukrainian Green Deal until 2050 and additionally take into account two promising segments of the bioenergy sector such as the development of production and consumption of first- and second-generation biofuels and biomethane. The structure of consumption of biofuels by their types and by types of produced energy carriers is proposed. It is estimated that in 2050, about half of the total biofuels consumption will come from solid biofuels used for heat production. The rest in comparable proportions will be split between solid biofuels for power production, biogas, biomethane, and liquid biofuels. Further, the Roadmap needs to be detailed, refined and expanded to the level of the Strategy for bioenergy development in Ukraine until 2050.

FEED-IN TARIFF, AUCTIONS AND RENEWABLE ENERGY SCHEMES IN MALAYSIA: LESSONS FROM OTHER JURISDICTIONS

Malaysia introduced Feed-in Tariff (FiT) in 2004 to incentivise renewable energy projects through the implementation of the National Renewable Energy Policy and Action Plan 2009 and the Renewable Energy Act 2011 (Act 725). Nevertheless, this FiT system failed to assist the country in increasing electricity generation from renewable sources. Later, auctions were introduced to boost the renewable shares, particularly solar photovoltaic power generation, after the quota for solar under the FiT were taken up. The tenders incorporated standard form of the contract along with a long-term Power Purchase Agreements (PPA) which induced for the lowest price for power generation and guaranteed access to the national grid. This measure is considered as an excellent instrument to expand the renewable energy sector. There has always been a question: whether abandoning FiT for auctions is a feasible choice in the interest of sustainable clean energy for sustainable development? The main objective of the present article is to investigate the implementation of auctions to support renewable energy development in Malaysia and to examine whether auctions could replace FiT. This study adopted a doctrinal and comparative approach. It concluded that competitive bidding is preferable to support mature technology and large-scale generations, while FiT should be sustained to support new technologies. The article has also identified several countries such as Germany and India, who have successfully implemented competitive bidding systems to support the aspiration to expand the renewable energy sector.

POTENTIAL AND PROSPECTS FOR USING AGRIBIOMASS FOR ENERGY IN UKRAINE

Purpose of the work is to identify promising directions for using agribiomass for energy in Ukraine. Current state and prospects for the development of this segment of bioenergy are considered. Analysis of the strategic goals for bioenergy development set by the National Renewable Energy Action Plan until 2020 and Energy Strategy of Ukraine until 2035 shows that only wide involvement of agribiomass in the country's fuel and energy complex can ensure attainment of these goals. Ukraine has considerable potential of agricultural biomass. According to data of 2018, it is 10.1 Mtoe, which is 44% of the total bioenergy potential. The main constituents of agribiomass potential are cereal straw and by-products of grain corn production. Today, of the various types of agribiomass, sunflower husk is most actively used for energy: more than 63% of its potential. Utilization of the potential of other types of agricultural residues is between 0 and 3%. For Ukraine, the most promising direction is priority use of corn stover for energy. Feasibility study of corn stalks harvesting as well as production of briquettes and pellets from them was performed. Main factors affecting the cost-effectiveness of projects on solid biofuel production are cost of raw materials, manufacturing line productivity and sale price of the finished product. Results of the feasibility study show that corn briquettes and pellets can be competitive in the biofuel market of Ukraine, and their production can be a profitable business project.

Analisis Kecekapan Aktiviti Penyelidikan dan Pembangunan (R&D) dalam Sektor Tenaga Boleh Diperbaharui di Malaysia

Research and development (R&D) activities in the renewable energy sector are one of the key elements under the National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREPAP). However, renewable energy R&D activities are not considered as one of the key components of the country’s R&D program and it needs to compete with other fields to get the research funding. Although the renewable energy R&D fund received is relatively low, the output from the renewable energy R&D activities in Malaysia is seen as encouraging especially on the research publication, patent, and development of human capital. This means that the R&D activities undertaken contribute indirectly to the development of renewable energy in Malaysia. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the performance of R&D activities in Malaysia based on five renewable energy sources, namely solar, wind, biomass, biogas, and mini hydro using the data envelopment analysis (DEA) approach from 2012 to 2017. This study used an output-oriented Charnes, Cooper, Rhodes (CCR)–DEA model with the ratio of one output and four inputs. The result of this study indicates that biomass is the most efficient renewable energy resource, while the wind is the least efficient renewable energy source from the perspective of R&D activities in Malaysia. The overall performance of renewable energy R&D activities in Malaysia is good with a score of 69.2% in 2012-2017. The results of this study are in line with the Malaysia Government's desire to develop biomass energy resources, as stated in the National Biomass Strategy 2020 initiative. The results of this study can serve as the basis for developing specific policies or strategies to strengthen R&Dactivities further to support the development of renewable energy in Malaysia.

Communicating Renewable Energy in the National Action Plans of the Member States of the European Union

For implementing renewable energy policies it is necessary to convince the population of the appropriateness and usefulness of the ideas. The information provision needed for that requires the communication to be accessible and understandable to the target audience. This research examined the national renewable energy action plans of the member states of the European Union. The online accessibility of these documents and their readability were examined using a simple accessibility test and the Flesch and Flesch–Kincaid readability tests. The paper also addresses the relationship between the culturally-determined power distance indices and the economic and developmental characteristics of the countries and the readability values of their samples. The results showed that the examined documents could be easily accessed, but the action plans of all the member states were difficult to read. The emerging pattern suggested that the text samples of the countries with higher power distances were harder to interpret. Nevertheless, no significant relationship was detected by the correlation analyses between the power distance indices and the Flesch and Flesch–Kincaid readability scores, while strong relationships were detected between the Human Development Index (HDI) data and the results of both readability tests in the group of countries with the highest power distance values.

The impact of policy measures on profitability and risk in geothermal energy investments

The development of geothermal energy is below the European National Renewable Energy Action Plans’ anticipated trajectory. High upfront investment costs and multiple sources of uncertainty result in a major investment risk, hampering the mobilization of required capital. To evaluate different policy measures, we developed a geological economic Monte Carlo simulation model that integrates both market and geological uncertainty and a firms’ option to abandon the geothermal project development after a first drilling is made. If the objective is to reduce the abandonment rate of geothermal projects, a heat premium comes forward as the most cost-efficient policy instrument. However, the risk that a project turns out unprofitable is not reduced and windfall profits do occur. In contrast, a recoverable loan reduces both the investment risk and the abandonment rate. An insurance scheme targets the investment risk as well. However, it also increases the abandonment rate and appears as the least cost-efficient policy measure. Considering the different policy performance indicators, a tax rebate is never preferred. Our results demonstrate the intricacies of choosing the correct policy measure, and the need to support such policy decisions with quantitative analyses.

RENEWABLE ENERGY AND POLICY DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA

Research Highlights This paper aims to assess the current progress of RE in this country and identify the impact of business sustainability idea towards RE policy development. The extensive review presented in this work offers a useful reference for policy makers, corporate managers and researchers who have vested interest in business sustainability and renewable energy related studies. ___________________________________________________________________________ Research Objectives The objectives of this study is to explore the evolving concept of business sustainability towards environmental concern and to identify the impact of business sustainability idea towards Malaysia’s policy development on RE deployment. Methodology This is conceptual paper where the authors tend to make the analysis by exploring particular theories on business sustainability, renewable energy (RE), and the engagement of RE activities on Malaysia policy development. Results All energy sources have some impact and benefit on our environment. For instance, renewable energy (RE) is energy resource that naturally replenished over time and always can be generated such as solar, wind and hydro energy. However, if the rate of use exceeds the rate of renewal, gradually it will become unsustainable. Thus, to have a sustainable energy which defined as energy production that can last for the foreseeable future is crucial and become main focus of recent national policies, strategies and development plan as of many countries. Malaysia energy consumption still heavily depended on the non- renewable energies (RE) such as fossil fuel and natural gases. Unfortunately, the use of the non-RE is unsustainable and can contribute adversely towards the environment and economic performance of a country. Renewable energy is brought to play as it is believed sustainable and has the potential to thrive in infinitely competitive market of contemporary business nowadays. Therefore, in 2009, the government of Malaysia has announced a National Renewable Energy Policy and Action Plan (NREPAP) as part of their commitment to accelerate the growth of RE as an alternatives energy sources for the coming years. Moving onwards, a strong policy is needed to tackle the challenges in meeting the demand, energy security and also the affordability of energy pricing. Thus, in energy security dimension, perhaps the government should put attention on renewable energy by engaging more on the alternative mechanism to deploy RE capacity through program such as Large-Scale Solar PV, Net Metering as at current practices and also other new initiative like green certificates. The exploration on new RE resource such as wind, geothermal, ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) also could assist in build up a new opportunity to enlarge the share of renewable energy mix percentage and ensure the future energy security (UNDP, 2007) Findings The energy industry is changing fast and in multiple directions. It is also regularly known as the catalyst for development in a country. Realizing the importance of energy as a vital dimension in economic and social development, the government of Malaysia has been continuously reviewing its energy policy and practices to ensure long-term sustainability, reliability and security of energy supply (Mohamed & Lee, 2006). The private sector even the communities should also be more corporate in social responsibilities and make compromises for instance by participating in green programs and accepting longer payback periods in RE projects. Nevertheless, continuous efforts and strong support from the societies are vital to ensure RE development can reach its maximum potential. This effort is also supported by (Dincer, 2000) and (Wutenhagen, Wolsink, & Buer, 2007) where they are stressed that increases the public awareness and acceptance on RE, it is as the initial step to make the sustainable energy program successful. This is done through the media, professional organizations, public and government channels. In conclusion, since there is still insufficient insight to critically reasoning the RE development in aspect of business and sustainability, the paper insists to contributes more to the research on energy policies enhancement in Malaysia particularly. This could be a challenge on governing agenda that involves a series of tradeoffs, market players, organizations and companies (Oliveira, 2018) and these efforts are important to ensure the future success of the RE development in Malaysia. Acknowledgement The authors would like to acknowledge Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN) for the fund granted through the Internal Grant (UNIIG2019), Project code: J510050852. References Dincer, I. (2000). Renewable energy and sustainable development: a crucial review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 4(2), 157–175. Mohamed, A. R., & Lee, K. T. (2006). Energy for sustainable development in Malaysia: Energy policy and alternative energy. Energy Policy, 34(15), 2388–2397. Oliveira, R. L. De. (2018). Powering the future : Malaysia ’ s energy policy challenges. Kuala Lumpur: IDEAS Policy Research Berhad. UNDP, United Nations Development Programme. (2007). Energy and Poverty in Malaysia: Challenges and the Way Forward. UNDP. Wutenhagen, R., Wolsink, M., & Buer, M. J. (2007). Social acceptance of renewable energy innovation: An introduction to the concept. Energy Policy, 35, 2683–2691.

Public perception toward residential solar panels in Bahrain

In 2017, Bahrain’s Cabinet endorsed the country’s first national renewable energy action plan. The plan included the installation of residential solar photovoltaic cells as a means of using renewable energy in government-built housing units. This was followed by the establishment of the country’s first photovoltaic solar panel manufacturing company and the introduction of a net metering policy. However, public acceptance of residential solar panels has not been researched. This study aimed to address this gap through the distribution of an online survey. A total of 764 complete responses were received. The results showed a considerable number of respondents were interested in installing solar panels. However, the respondents recognized several challenges in both buying and installing them, including capital cost, lack of information, and maintenance requirements. This study’s findings offer insights on how the public perceives solar panels, along with issues the government needs to address to ensure successful public participation in the use of solar energy in the residential sector in Bahrain.

Szarvasi-1 and Its Potential to Become a Substitute for Maize Which Is Grown for the Purposes of Biogas Plants in the Czech Republic

The domestic biogas market has been developing rapidly, and legislation (The Act) supporting the use of renewable energy sources has come into force. In light of this act and investment support from national programs co-financed by the European Union (EU), the total number of biogas plants has recently increased from a few to 600. The total capacity of electricity generation of those 600 installed plants exceeds 360 Megawatts (MW) (as of mid-2018). Such dynamic growth is expected to continue, and the targets of the National Renewable Energy Action Plan are projected to be met. The use of waste material, which was urgently needed, was the original aim of biogas plants. However, in certain cases, the original purpose has transformed, and phytomass is very often derived from purpose-grown energy crops. Maize is the most common and widely grown energy crop in the Czech Republic. Nevertheless, maize production raises several environmental issues. One way to potentially reduce maize’s harmful effects is to replace it with other suitable crops. Perennial energy crops, for example, are possible alternatives to maize. A newly introduced species for the conditions of the Czech Republic, Elymus elongatus subsp. ponticus cv. Szarvasi-1, and some other well-known species—Phalaris arundinacea L. and Miscanthus × giganteus—are suitable for Czech Republic climate conditions. This paper presents the findings of the research and evaluation of environmental, energy-related, and economic aspects of growing these crops for use in biogas plants. These findings are based on 5-year small-plot field trials. The energy-related aspects of producing Elymus elongatus subsp. ponticus cv. Szarvasi-1, Phalaris arundinacea L., and Miscanthus x giganteus are reported on the basis of experiments that included measuring the real methane yield from a production unit. The economic analysis is based on a model of every single growing and technological operation and costs. The environmental burden of the individual growing methods was assessed with a simplified life cycle assessment (LCA) using the impact category of Climate Change and the SimaPro 8.5.2.0 software tool, including an integrated method called ReCiPe. The research findings show that Szarvasi-1 produces 5.7–6.7 Euros (EUR) per Gigajoule (GJ) of energy, depending on the growing technology used. Szarvasi-1 generates an average energy profit of 101.4 GJ ha−1, which is half of that produced by maize (214.1 GJ ha−1). The environmental burden per energy unit of maize amounts to 16 kg of carbon dioxide eq GJ−1 compared with the environmental burden per energy unit of Szarvasi-1, which amounts to 7.2–15.6 kg of CO2 eq GJ−1, depending on the yield rate. On the basis of the above-mentioned yield rate of Szarvasi-1, it cannot be definitively recommended for the purpose of biogas plants in the Czech Republic.

How to include cooling in the EU Renewable Energy Directive? Strategies and policy implications

The EU Renewable Energy Directive (RES-Directive) establishes a policy framework for the promotion of renewable energy in the EU. Under the framework of the RES-Directive, EU Member States have adopted national renewable energy action plans including sectorial targets for electricity, heating and cooling, and transport. While the RES-Directive outlines the methodology for calculating the renewable energy shares for electricity, heating and transport, it does not offer any indications on how to account for renewable cooling. Due to the lacking methodological guidelines, Member States can currently not report renewable cooling and cooling does therefore not play a role for target achievement. At the same time, the energy demand for cooling is growing rapidly and the inclusion of renewable cooling can potentially have a large impact on the renewable energy shares that Member States report. Based on an overview of available cooling technologies, this article explores various strategies for including cooling in the RES-Directive and investigates the impact on target achievement. We find that the potential impact of including cooling is considerable and conclude that ambitious minimum efficiency requirements are needed in order to maintain the ambition of the RES-Directive and to stimulate the development of policies to support low-carbon cooling technologies.

PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS FOR BIOENERGY DEVELOPMENT IN UKRAINE

The current state of the development of bioenergy in Ukraine is presented. Prospects for the production of heat from biomass by sectors of consumption until 2050 are estimated. The most important barriers to the development of the sector are analyzed, ways for their complete or partial overcoming are suggested.
 The current state of the development of bioenergy in Ukraine is presented. It is shown that according to Ukraine’s energy balance for 2010-2016, the average annual growth of bioenergy is 45 % by the «production of biofuel and wastes» and 35 % by the «total primary energy supply from biofuels and wastes». Despite quite good dynamics of the development, to reach key figures of the National Renewable Energy Action Plan until 2020 it is necessary to speed up bioenergy growth. Prospects for the production of heat from biomass by sectors of consumption until 2050 are estimated. The obtained results show that the share of renewables in the total heat production may be over 57 % in 2050. At that the consumption of renewable energy sources will be about 13.8 Mtoe/yr (of which biomass accounts for over 90 %), and the respective replacement of natural gas will come to about 17 billion m3/yr. The most important barriers to the development of bioenergy sector are analyzed, and ways for their complete or partial overcoming are suggested. Ukraine has quite good legal basis for the development of renewable energy. In particular, it includes the feed-in tariff for power produced from alternative energy sources and stimulating tariff for heat produced from alternative energy sources for households and public buildings. For the wider involvement of biomass in the fuel and energy balance of Ukraine it is necessary to provide legal basis and implementation of a number of important measures.Among others, they include creating preconditions for increasing harvesting of wood in Ukraine’s forests, introduction of the electronic biofuel trade system, ensuring fair access of independentproducersofbiomassheattoheatnetworksandother.

A scrutiny study on wave energy potential and policy in Turkey

Recently new and renewable energy sources began to become prominent as alternatives to fossil fuels. Among these are wind, solar, hydraulic, biomass, geothermal and wave energies. As for Turkey, the least accounted and less applied of these sources is wave energy. The government has established a short-term outlook on utilization of renewable energy sources, named “National Renewable Energy Action Plan” which is a part of Vision 2023 targets. Nonetheless, there is no planned utilization of and/or investment into wave energy in Turkey’s agenda up to the year 2023. This might be mainly because of the complex structure of wave energy conversion systems, marine conditions, mechanical difficulties and high initial investment costs. However, this type of energy is environmentally friendly, cheap and clean, and a great potential is available especially in Turkey which is surrounded on three sides by sea. Although Turkey has neither coasts to oceans nor a long stretch of west coastline, which have the highest energetic waves thanks to the prevailing west-to-east winds; the Black Sea basin, as well as the south-western Mediterranean region, may offer a good potential for development as an energetic regime, often comparable to oceanic sites in terms of wave heights, induced by strong wind patterns. In this study, wave energy potential in Turkey and recent studies made on determination of suitable sites for evaluation of wave energy in Turkey are discussed.

RENEWABLE POLICIES AND CHALLENGES BY 2020 IN GREECE: A QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY

In a notable change from the position in the past, the Greek government is committed to greening the economy and has assumed determined policies and actions to boost the utilization of renewable energy. The aim of the paper is, firstly, to present the latest developments of the renewable energy policy in Greece, the current achievements and impediments in the implementation of planned reforms in the accomplishment of its 2020 targets, and the specific policy measures introduced; second, to discuss the pace of respective developments in other EU-28 member countries; and, third, through a questionnaire survey and stratified interviews with market participants, to verify the achievements of the government towards reversing previous bureaucratic and prone to corruption procedures. Respectively, research survey results from our survey and interviews conducted in the second semester of 2014 are presented. The majority of respondents expect that the targets set in the National Renewable Energy Action Plan will be reached by 2020. The paper and the questionnaire survey have been conducted under the auspices of the European research program THALES, which intends to measure various aspects of the shadow economy in Greece, also including the areas of renewable energy trade and finance.