Natural Forest Areas Research Articles

Structural characterization using 2D NMR spectroscopy and TMAH-GC × GC-MS: Application to humic acids from soils of an integrated agricultural system and an Atlantic native forest

Understanding the chemical make-up of soils and their structure is critical for constraining the role of soil organic matter (SOM) into the global biogeochemical cycles, as well as to understand the capability of SOM to sequester carbon and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. Here, we use two-dimensional 1H-13C heteronuclear single quantum coherence nuclear magnetic resonance (2D 1H-13C HSQC NMR) spectroscopy to structurally characterize the most refractory component of SOM, the humic acid (HA). The observations from 2D 1H-13C HSQC NMR were coupled with lignin phenol and fatty acid measurements using tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH) thermochemolysis – two-dimensional gas chromatography – mass spectrometry (TMAH-GC × GC-MS). We studied humic acids extracted from an integrated Crop – Livestock – Forest System (CLFS) agricultural area and an undisturbed Atlantic Native Forest (NF) area. We evaluated soils from two different depths: the topsoil (0–20 cm) and subsoil (60–100 cm) layers, and reveal the presence of oxidized ligninaceous phenols as we had previously hypothesized. Collectively, our results indicate that there are significant oxidative processes with increasing soil depth which are more pronounced in the CLFS relative to the NF area. Degradation of stearic acid with increasing depth in the CLFS soils indicated that the CLFS is more microbiologically active than NF. Therefore, CLFS is less biochemically stable than we originally perceived. The enhanced bio-reactivity of CLFS is likely driving the enhanced carbon sequestration in the CLFS soils. This is perhaps due to the diversity of biomass remnants available at the CLFS soil rhizosphere which allows for more different types of biomass to be sequestered as oxidized ligninaceous phenols. Our results employing structural characterization with 2D 1H-13C HSQC NMR and TMAH-GC × GC-MS provide a new layer of knowledge about the practice of integrated agricultural systems and allow us to understand the structure and fate of sequestered carbon in soils from different soil environments.

Cultural value and vegetation structure of Buxus wallichiana Bail. in Rajouri-Poonch region of Indian Himalayan region (VSI: Mountainous regions)

Buxus wallichiana is an economically valuable tree species of Indian Himalayan Region. Considering its economic importance and income generation potential in the Rajouri-Poonch region of Jammu and Kashmir, present study was carried out to assess its economic value and cultural contribution through quantitative ethnobotanical approaches. Further, the study aims to examine the existing population status and regeneration patterns of B. wallichiana in natural forests of the region. Based on the socio-ecological surveys in the region, it was observed that a variety of handicraft articles like combs, pen stands, hangers, toys, and decorative items are made from the wood of B. wallichiana and are being sold in the local markets. It sustains whole cottage industry in Rajouri-Poonch region and the livelihood of the locals depends on this valuable tree species. It generates a good annual income for the people indulged in handicraft or wood carving industry. Based on its phytosociology, it was found that in natural forest areas of the region, B. wallichiana was mostly found associated with 8 other tree species viz. Pinus roxburghii, Toona ciliata, Quercus leucotrichophora, Acer oblongum, Acer cappadocicum, Pyrus pashia, Syzygium cumini and Aesculus indica. Average importance value and average basal area of B. wallichiana was found highest in Syzygium cumini - Pyrus pashia – Quercus leucotrichophora community. Density of B. wallichiana ranges from 200 to 500 Ind/ha which was lesser than the density of its seedlings and saplings. Density of B. wallichiana trees, saplings and seedlings was much lower than the density of its associated species. Present study reveals that B. wallichiana is threatened with clear evidence of reduced regeneration due to huge anthropogenic pressure on its wild populations stressing on the need of immediate conservation measures to be taken not only in Jammu and Kashmir but throughout the Indian Himalayan Region.

Spectroscopic characteristics of humic acids extracted from soils under different integrated agricultural production systems in tropical regions

Soil Organic Matter (SOM) plays an important in many ecosystems on the planet. Therefore, we employed elemental analysis (CHN), fluorescence spectroscopy (EEM-CP/PARAFAC), and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) to characterize the humic acids (HA) extracted from soils under integrated agricultural production systems (e.g. agroforestry systems (AFS)). These systems (S) included Crop (C), Livestock (L), Forest (F), and different combinations of them (CLFS, LFS, and CLS), which were compared with pastures (intensive (INT) and extensive (EXT)) and native forest (NF). For this purpose, we collected samples of a dystrophic Red-Yellow Latosol from experimental field areas which it is located at the Embrapa Pecuária Sudeste in São Carlos, São Paulo state, Brazil. Results showed that the HA humification index increased with soil depth, which is identified by complex structures more affluent in semiquinone-type free radical (SFR) and higher fluorescence intensity, especially in the AFS. Therefore, the HA from the CLFS systems had a higher aromaticity profile than HA from pastures and native forest areas, suggesting a longer lifetime to Carbon compounds. These significant findings are important for developing climate change mitigation strategies.

Quantification of Root Biomass in Post-Mining Areas in the Municipality of Capitão Poço – PA, Brazil

The present work aimed to quantify the concentrations and biomass stock of fine andthick roots, in three areas in the municipality of Capitão Poço-PA, Brazil. The areas used were degraded area, recovery area and native forest. For soil sampling, 24 trenches were opened, measuring 70 x 70 x 100 cm. In these trenches, soil samples were taken at depths 0-10, 10-20, 20-30, 30-40, 40-50, 50-60, 60-80 and 80-100 cm and sieving was carried out.All roots and other underground plant structures that remained in the sieve were collected by manual collection. The roots were separated into two diameter classes: fine roots ≤ 5 mm and thick roots > 5 mm, kiln dried and weighed.In the analysis, higherconcentrationsofthickand fine roots were observed in an area of native forest at depths of 0-10 and 10-20 cm. In the areas analyzed in this study, the root density in the topsoil of 0-10 cm was mainly composed of fine roots.In the three areas analyzed in this study, it was observed that from a depth of 10-20 cm there were decreases in theconcentrationsofthick roots. The area under recovery approached the area of native forest in the concentration of fine roots, demonstrating possible improvements in soil quality and recovery is probably actually taking place.

The importance of U.S. national forest roadless areas for vulnerable wildlife species

Inventoried roadless areas (IRAs) in national forests in the contiguous United States (CONUS) are public lands that are ecologically intact and could be prime candidates for addition to the protected-area system, thereby contributing to the goal of protecting 30% of the Earth by 2030. Despite calls both to protect roadless areas and to downgrade them, we know surprisingly little about the importance of IRAs as habitat for vulnerable wildlife species. We assessed the importance of IRAs—in total and individually—as habitat for wildlife species of conservation concern (SCCs) and, for context, compared their habitat value to that of other national forest lands and CONUS lands in general. We also quantified how well the protected-area system would provide habitat for wildlife SCCs if all unprotected IRAs were added to it. Of the 537 wildlife SCCs in CONUS, 308 species (57%) have at least some suitable habitat in one or more IRAs. The median IRA contains suitable habitat for 10 wildlife SCCs, with a maximum of 62 wildlife SCCs. Despite their geographic and elevational clustering and predominance of a single biome type, IRAs provide a larger proportion of suitable habitat for multiple wildlife SCCs than non-IRA CONUS lands. The median number of wildlife SCCs’ suitable habitat per 900-m2 pixel is also slightly higher in IRAs than in most national forest wilderness areas, national monuments, and other currently protected areas. If all IRAs were added to the protected-area system in CONUS, there would be a substantial decrease (−38) in the number of wildlife SCCs that are currently considered “poorly represented” in protected areas. In this study we provide quantitative information about the importance of IRAs as habitat for vulnerable wildlife species so that stakeholders, agency staff, and lawmakers can make informed choices about where to invest limited resources for conservation.

Factors outside privately protected areas determine mammal assemblages in a global biodiversity hotspot in the Andes

Privately protected areas with voluntary forest protection are promoted as an innovative solution for biodiversity conservation across the globe, particularly in regions where high biological diversity is threatened by agricultural expansion and human disturbance such as the tropical Andes. Colombia alone has over 2000 privately protected areas, but how well private reserves achieve conservation goals is largely unknown. To understand the attributes of reserves that determine success and the types of species conserved, we evaluated regional diversity of medium and large mammals with camera trapping over two years in the western Andes of Colombia. We examined how mammal occupancy was influenced by the size and land use of privately protected areas, landscape-scale variables, and anthropogenic disturbance. We used a multi-species hierarchical framework to assess responses of species and functional groups to environmental covariates. We found that forest in this reserve network retains a diverse mammal assemblage, but low occurrence and restricted species distributions suggest high vulnerability. Forest-restricted species and large species had higher occupancy in larger sites and sites with a higher proportion of forest, regardless of whether a site was designated as a reserve. However, landscape-level measures of connectivity and human disturbance were the strongest predictors of occupancy. Our research indicates that conservation of biodiversity within reserve networks in the Andes will be effective only if these efforts are linked to landscape-level conservation initiatives that conserve large areas of native forest and limit human disturbance across the landscape.

Balancing ecological and social goals in PES design – Single objective strategies are not sufficient

Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) are key instruments to foster environmental conservation and, arguably, social development goals. PES are, however, commonly designed based on a single environmental objective (e.g., conservation of native forest areas), and expected to simultaneously fulfil social goals which are rarely evaluated. Thus, to meet social goals, PES design needs to transcend single environmental objectives. Here, we evaluate the performance of three PES strategies composed of different targeting criteria. The strategies were (1) conserving native forest cover, (2) production of a specific ecosystem service (ES) based on a single ecological objective and (3) production of a specific ES based on multiple social and ecological objectives. We illustrate the performance of the three PES strategies for a forest dominated rural area in southern Chile using a Surface Measure Overall Performance (SMOP) analysis. We evaluate the outcomes of the three strategies based on ten ecological and social criteria, namely ecosystem service supply productivity, threats to ES supply, farm property size, social vulnerability, indigenous status of land tenure, landscape connectivity, proportion of native forest cover, number of targeted properties, number of small-sized targeted properties, and proportion of ES supply. Strategies based on a single objective (1 and 2) resulted in higher scores for the criteria landscape connectivity and ES productivity, while failing to improve social goals by targeting mainly large non-indigenous properties. In contrast, the multiple-objective strategy (3) achieved a better balance between ecological and social criteria and targeted mainly small-sized properties belonging to indigenous landowners. Our results show that selecting sound PES objectives is key to achieving a balance between social and ecological goals in forest-dominated rural landscapes threatened by land use change. Relying on commonly employed single objective PES strategies is not sufficient to foster sustainable development.

The undergrowth composition and distribution in different forest area utilization

Abstract. Sidabukke SH, Barus TA, Utomo B, Delvian. 2021. The undergrowth composition and distribution in different forest area utilization. Biodiversitas 22: 5255-5261. Forests provide natural raw materials to support various human activities and also demonstrate a wide range of biodiversity, both in terms of wildlife and plants. Based on biological resources, undergrowth species form a significant portion of the forest ecosystems and have overgrown the typical wooden plants. These ground cover/undergrowth groups are known to exhibit diverse complexities and a type of basic vegetation existing under the forest stands. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to determine the composition and distribution of undergrowth species in each forest area designation, including industrial, protected and natural forests. The plot technique was employed, with an area of 2 m x 2 m. This involves a total of 480, 224 and 96 plots in the industrial plantations, protected and natural forest areas, respectively. Also, the entire plants in the measuring plot were recorded, starting from the sprouts up to 1.5 m high. Subsequently, the important value index (IVI) and Morisita index methods were applied in the data analysis. The results showed the occurrence of 98, 57 and 33 undergrowth species in industrial, protected as well as in natural forests, correspondingly. Based on the important value index calculations, Sintrong species (Crassocephalum crepidioides) reported the maximum IVI (31.587%) in industrial forest plantations, alongside Senduduk (Melastoma malabathricum) and Paku Wangi (Phymatosorus scolependria) in the protected areas (29.951%) and natural forests (29.551%), respectively. Furthermore, the Morisita index indicated that the undergrowth distribution pattern for the three areas was clustered, uniform and random, but with varying percentages. However, only two distribution patterns, including random and clustered were peculiar to the natural forests.

Importance of natural land cover for plant species' conservation: A nationwide study in The Netherlands.

While shifts to high-intensity land cover have caused overwhelming biodiversity loss, it remains unclear how important natural land cover is to the occurrence, and thus the conservation, of different species groups. We used over 4 million plant species' observations to evaluate the conservation importance of natural land cover by its association with the occurrence probability of 1 122 native and 403 exotic plant species at 1 km resolution by species distribution models. We found that 74.9% of native species, 83.9% of the threatened species and 77.1% rare species preferred landscapes with over 50% natural land cover, while these landscapes only accounted for 15.6% of all grids. Most species preferred natural areas with a mixture of forest and open areas rather than areas with completely open or forested nature. Compared to native species, exotic species preferred areas with lower natural land cover and the cover of natural open area, but they both preferred extremely high and low cover of natural forest area. Threatened and rare species preferred higher natural land cover, either cover of natural forest area or cover of natural open area than not threatened and common species, but rare species were also more likely to occur in landscapes with 0-25% cover of natural open area. Although more natural land cover in a landscape will not automatically result in more native species, because there is often a non-linear increase in species occurrence probability when going from 0% to 100% natural land cover, for conserving purposes, over 80% natural land cover should be kept in landscapes for conserving threatened and very rare species, and 60% natural land cover is the best for conserving common native species. Our results stress the importance of natural areas for plant species' conservation. It also informs improvements to species conservation by increasing habitat diversity.

Amplification of 16S rRNA primer on rhizosphere bacteria from reclamation area and natural forest of PT. Vale

Open-pit mining activities cause land degradation; therefore, post-mining land recovery or reclamation is essential. An indicator to rate the success of mine reclamation activities is the diversity of soil microbial populations. Molecular bacteria identification requires prior information about the amplification of universal primers for molecular analysis. This study analyzes the amplification of 16S rRNA primers on rhizosphere bacteria isolates from reclamation and forest areas. The research activities encompassed sample preparation, isolation of bacteria isolates, isolation of DNA isolate, quantitative test, qualitative test, and amplification. The findings showed that pure isolates of rhizosphere bacteria from reclamation and natural forest areas that could be used were five and ten isolates, respectively. One isolate (20%) from the reclamation area and four isolates (40%) from natural forest generated DNA band, which were amplified using 16S rRNA.

Estimating land cover map accuracy and area uncertainty using a confusion matrix: A case study in Kalimantan, Indonesia

Remote sensing is widely used to generate land cover maps, but the maps derived from remote sensing often produce accuracy below expectations for map error. Therefore, quantifying map accuracy is essential for reporting the precision of an estimated area. This study describes a simple framework for assessing map accuracy and estimating land cover area uncertainty for a land cover changes map for Kalimantan in 2012-2018. This study compared simple random sampling and stratified random sampling to determine suitable procedures for estimating accuracy and area uncertainty. The validation relies on the visual assessment of high spatial resolution images such as SPOT 6/7 and high-resolution temporal images from Open Foris Collect Earth. Our results showed that the land cover change map assessed using random sampling had an overall accuracy of 74% while using stratified random sampling had an overall accuracy of 75%. Thus, for tropical regions with high cloud cover, we recommend using stratified random sampling. The major source of map error was in differentiating between native forest and plantation areas. Future map improvement requires more accurate differentiation between forest and plantation to better support national forest monitoring systems for sustainable forest management.

Delimitating the Ecological Spaces for Water Conservation Services in Jilin Province of China

Mastering the spatial distribution of water retention capacity and scientifically delineating the ecological space for water conservation are of great significance to the management of regional land and water resources. In this paper, a water conservation ecological spatial delimitation framework suitable for water-deficient areas was put forward. The water retention capacity of the study area in 1983, 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2016 was evaluated by using the InVEST Water Yield model and water balance method, respectively. On this basis, a flexible inflection point model based on the contribution degree of functional units was established. Then the ecological space for water conservation was delimited. The framework was applied to the delimitation of the key water conservation areas in Jilin province, China. The results showed that: (1) the spatial distribution pattern of water conservation in Jilin province gradually decreased from east to west. The spatial difference was significant. The maximum value of water conservation in Jilin province was 730 mm. From 1983 to 2016, water conservation, which accounted for 75.71% of the area, showed an upward trend. The overall water retention capacity showed the characteristics of the overall increase and the local decline. (2) From the absolute amount of the effect of unit area change on water conservation, the intensity from the high to the low was forestland, cultivated land, grassland, unused land, buildings, and water. (3) The area of water conservation less than 474 mm accounted for more than 80% of the total study area. The overall water retention capacity was low. High importance ecological space area of water conservation was comprehensively defined as 36.97%, which was mainly distributed in the natural forest area of Changbai Mountain in the east and the south of Song Liao Plain. Therefore, this study provided a basic layout of relatively concentrated ecological spatial distribution for water conservation types at different levels in Jilin province. The study results and conclusions of this paper will provide a reference for water conservation assessment and the regional land’s natural resources management.

Carbon Stock and Respiration of Rhizosphere Soils of Sal (Shorea Robusta Roxb. Ex. Gaertn. F.) In Relation To Some Environmental Variables of Different Sal Forest Stands of Bangladesh

Effects of some environmental variables (moisture, temperature, pH) on the carbon stock and respiration in the rhizosphere soil of Sal (Shorea robusta Roxb. ex. Gaertn. f.) of 11 different Sal forest stands situated in Cumilla, Gazipur, Sherpur, Modhupur, Dinajpur and Rangpur of Bangladesh were assessed. Soil samples were collected from two layers (upper layer, 0 - 15 cm and lower layer, 15–30 cm depth). During February 2019, samples were collected from Kotbari and Rajeshpur of Cumilla and during June 2019, samples were collected from the rest of the stands. The values of different variables showed fluctuations, e.g. moisture content (11.87 - 38.78%), pH (4.73 to 6.03), conductivity (63.13 - 248.83 μS/cm), soil organic carbon (135.43 - 1263.53 ton/ha) and respiration (75.95 - 91.8 mg CO2/g soil) respectively. Rates of respiration increased where pH remained 4 to 6 and the temperature 20 to 34ºC. Rate of respiration also increased when the amount of moisture content and carbon stock decreased. This research will help to understand the role of environmental factors on the variability of soil C dynamics in the natural Sal forest areas of Bangladesh. Bangladesh J. Bot. 50(3): 685-693, 2021 (September)

Effect of forestry (Pinus sp.) on the bat community (Mammalia: Chiroptera) in Neotropical region

AbstractDifferent land uses can influence the way species are distributed across the landscape, which can generate arguments and justifications for conservation and the management of potential areas for conservation. Our study aimed to evaluate the structural complexity of the habitat (canopy openness) and the different land uses (native forest cover, silviculture and agriculture) in the composition of species of the bat community in areas of native forest and silviculture. We also aimed to compare the richness, abundance and beta diversity between these habitats. Bats were captured using mist nets during 21 nights of sampling in each area. We found an unusual pattern for bat assemblages in Neotropical regions, registering greater species richness for the family Vespertilionidae. No significant differences were found between the two areas regarding the abundance, species composition and beta diversity. The native forest area showed greater species richness, corroborating our hypothesis. We demonstrated how bat species are distributed in habitats with different land uses, as well as the importance of native forest areas to maintain the set of regional species.

Analysis on Dynamic Change of Natural Forest Resources in Sichuan Province

In order to understand the resource status of natural forest in Sichuan province, identify the cause and the evolution law of natural forest resources, and provide important reference and scientific basis for the protection and restoration of natural forest in Sichuan province. In this paper, the data of natural forest resources in the whole province from 1979 to 2017 were deeply analyzed. The results showed that the area, volume and unit volume of natural forest increased on the whole, and the area and unit volume showed a trend of ‘decreasing-increasing-decreasing’, and the overall volume increased with time. The age group structure of natural forest was unbalance, and the proportion of nearly-mature forest and mature and over-mature forest was out of balance. The area and volume ratio of non-commercial forest and commercial forest changed from 3∶7 to 8∶2 and 1∶9 to 9∶1, respectively. The area ratio of coniferous forest and broadleaved forest changed from 10∶0 to 6∶4. Therefore, improving the quality of natural forest, optimizing the age group structure, and strengthening the tending of young and middle-aged forest and nearly-mature forest were the key points for natural forest protection in our province.

Carbon-stock estimation in three types of coal post-mining reclamation at East Kutai Regency, East Kalimantan

The success of a reclamation process could be evaluated by calculating the carbon stocks in the area. Carbon stock is an ecosystem service that can be assessed quantitatively. The reclamation process in the coal post-mining area in East Kalimantan needs to be assessed by comparing it to the reference area. The aim of this study was to determine the value of carbon stock in the three types of coal post-mining reclamation areas (Type A: without shade trees, Type B: with one species shade trees, Type C: with more than one species of shade trees), then compared to the natural forest area used as the reference site. The research was carried out by making plots inside the reference site and in the reclamation areas, at the tree, poles, and sapling stages. The results were analyzed descriptively and statistically for each reclamation type refer to the conservation area. The results showed that reclamation type C, with older year plant, had higher carbon stock compared to Type B, or Type A, ie. 51.9 t C/ha, 37.8 t C/ha, and 2.9 t C/ha respectively. However, the carbon stock in the three types of reclamation area is still much lower, than the conservation area which reaches 296.8 t C/ha. Thus, the older and more diverse species planted in a reclamation area plant, the higher carbon stock saved. Moreover, planting shade trees can also help increase the value of carbon stocks in a reclamation area.

AVALIAÇÃO DO USO E OCUPAÇÃO DO SOLO NA BACIA HIDROGRÁFICA DO RIO ITAJAÍ E SIMULAÇÃO PARA 2027

A característica do uso do solo, o estado de regeneração das florestas e as práticas das atividades econômicas locais – principalmente as práticas agrícolas – influenciam diretamente na qualidade e na quantidade de água em uma bacia hidrográfica. O objetivo deste estudo é apresentar uma avaliação da evolução do uso e ocupação do solo na bacia hidrográfica do rio Itajaí, que possui uma área total de aproximadamente 15 km², e é uma das mais importantes do estado de Santa Catarina. Foram avaliados mapas de uso do solo dos anos de 1990, 2000, 2010 e 2015, obtidos por meio do projeto MapBiomas. A partir da avaliação da evolução do uso do solo, com o auxílio do software TerrSet, antigo IDRISI, foi simulado um mapa de uso do solo para o ano de 2027. Os resultados indicaram que a área total de silvicultura, principal atividade causadora de desmatamento na bacia, terá um crescimento de 48,1%, enquanto que a área total de florestas naturais terá uma redução de 13,2%. Estima-se que, em 2027, apenas 55% da área total da bacia seja de florestas naturais. Em 1990, este valor era de 67%.

A Comprehensive Inventory of Alien Plants in the Protected Forest Areas of Tripura and their Ecological Consequences

The present paper provides a comprehensive inventory of 186 alien plant species of Tripura, their invasion status on natural forested areas. Asteraceae is the most dominant family with 31 species followed by 56.98 % of the alien species reported from PAs of Tripura were of American origin. Life form analysis revealed the presence of 56.98% herbs, 16.12 % trees and 9.67 % shrubs. 106 species have been used in traditional medicines, 66 species were of potential ornamental value, 14 species were edibles, 12 species used as timber and 15 species used as green manure. Mikania micrantha, Ageratum conyzoides, Parthenium hysterophorus, Lantana camara, Chromolaena odorata, Ageratum houstonianum are the most invaded species while Ageratum houstonianum, Saccharum spontaneum, Hyptis suaveolens, Imperata cylindrica, Hypoestis phyllostachya are the five neo-invasives for the state

Changes in ecosystem service values strongly influenced by human activities in contrasting agro-ecological environments

BackgroundEvaluating the impacts of land-use/land-cover (LULC) changes on ecosystem service values (ESVs) is essential for sustainable use and management of ecosystems. In this study, we evaluated the impact of human activity driven LULC changes on ESVs over the period 1982–2016/17 in contrasting agro-ecological environments: Guder (highland), Aba Gerima (midland), and Debatie (lowland) watersheds of the Upper Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia.ResultsDuring the study period, the continuous expansion of cultivated land at the expense of natural vegetation (bushland, forest, and grazing land) severely reduced the total ESV by about US$ 58 thousand (35%) in Aba Gerima and US$ 31 thousand (29%) in Debatie watersheds. In contrast, the unprecedented expansion of plantations, mainly through the planting of Acacia decurrens, led, from 2006, to a ESV rebound by about US$ 71 thousand (54%) in Guder watershed, after it had decreased by about US$ 61 thousand (32%) between 1982 and 2006. The reduction in natural forest area was the major contributor to the loss of total ESV in the study watersheds, ranging from US$ 31 thousand (63%) in Debatie to US$ 96.9 thousand (70%) in Guder between 1982 and 2016/17. On an area-specific basis, LULC changes reduced the average ESV from US$ 560 ha−1 year−1 (1982) in Guder to US$ 306 ha−1 year−1 (2017) in Debatie watersheds. Specific ESVs such as provisioning (mainly as food production) and regulating services (mainly as erosion control and climate regulation) accounted for most of the total ESVs estimated for the study watersheds.ConclusionsIn most cases, the total and specific ESVs of the watersheds were negatively associated with the population growth, which in turn was positively associated with the expansion of cultivated land over the study period. In Guder, however, ESVs were positively associated with population growth, especially after 2012. This is mainly due to the expansion of Acacia decurrens plantations. Our results suggest, therefore, that future policy measures and directions should focus on improving vegetation cover through planting multipurpose trees such as Acacia decurrens to prevent future loss of ESV in the midland and lowland regions of the Upper Blue Nile basin and beyond. However, caution must be taken during plantation of invasive species as they may have undesirable consequences.

Advanced green bioprocess of soil carbohydrate extraction from long-term conversion of forest soil to paddy field

The present research aims to study the long-term impacts of soil extractable carbohydrate content from the conversion of forest to paddy field, using three environmentally friendly methods: ultrasound assist (37 Hz/30 min), hot water (80 °C/4 h), and cold water (25 °C/30 min). Soil samples collected at the depth of 0–15 cm from natural forest, rice paddy, and border area were extracted by distilled water at the ratio 1:10 (soil: water). Contents of soil organic carbon (SOC) and extracted carbohydrate (ECH) in the natural forest and rice paddy were similar, and higher than in border area by 50%. Results showed the highest content of ECH was extracted using hot water (304–691 mg.Carbohydrate/kg soil, 4% of SOC), followed by ultrasound (102–305 mg.Carbohydrate/kg soil, 1.7% of SOC), and the lowest amount addressed to cold-water extraction (65–252 mg.Carbohydrate/kg soil, 1.2% of SOC). The ECH/SOC ratios in three soil types were the same and ranged from 0.9% to 4.2%. We conclude the long-term conversion of forest to rice paddy maintain both SOC and ECH, furthermore, hot water extraction at 80 °C/4 h is the optimum method for extraction of carbohydrate using non-chemical solvents.