Delhi Research Articles

FACTORS AFFECTING RISE IN AFFORDABLE HOUSING IN DELHI NCR

Within the attractive real Estate industry, affordable housing seems to be a dazzling prospect in India. Affordable accommodation is an important concern in India where most of the population is not able to purchases own houses due to the high market price. Affordable housing projects required differently modified policy as land is the chief limitation in the metro cities. The prospective of affordable houses are high, by the very nature of its business model, which is attached with Indias main part of population, which in middle class citizens. However simultaneously, there are some issues came across by private players in affordable housing projects such as taxes, land, government sanctions, financial scheme, etc. This study examines the key factors affecting rise in affordable houses in Delhi region. The study also tried to identify the major problems encountered by private builders and the buyers of low income people. This research study aimed to assess the impact of the government initiatives on and the purchasers and tries to summarize their perception and attitudes towards government policies to enhance the affordable housing sector. KEYWORDS: Affordable housing, Government initiatives

GLASS CEILING EFFECT AMONG WOMEN IN LEADERSHIP POSITION IN HOSPITALS

The aim of the study was to explore the glass ceiling effect faced by women leaders in hospital. The study was conducted on a population from the state of Kerala and Delhi, whereby fifty- three participants filled out the screening questionnaire, out of which ten participants were screened out to be a part of the qualitative study using semi-structured interviews. The sample consisted of women in leadership position for at least more than a year. Certain areas were explored, which lead to a finding that the women in leadership positions face a plethora of issues at workplace revolving around aspects like overwork, challenges faced, relationships in workplace and employees, discrimination faced and the expertise in the field etc. The major aspect that was brought into focus was that women's gender denies them the best opportunities

Nitrogen dioxide as proxy indicator of air pollution from fossil fuel burning in New Delhi during lockdown phases of COVID-19 pandemic period: impact on weather as revealed by Sentinel-5 precursor (5p) spectrometer sensor.

There has been a long-lasting impact of the lockdown imposed due to COVID-19 on several fronts. One such front is climate which has seen several implications. The consequences of climate change owing to this lockdown need to be explored taking into consideration various climatic indicators. Further impact on a local and global level would help the policymakers in drafting effective rules for handling challenges of climate change. For in-depth understanding, a temporal study is being conducted in a phased manner in the New Delhi region taking NO2 concentration and utilizing statistical methods to elaborate the quality of air during the lockdown and compared with a pre-lockdown period. In situ mean values of the NO2 concentration were taken for four different dates, viz. 4th February, 4th March, 4th April, and 25th April 2020. These concentrations were then compared with the Sentinel (5p) data across 36 locations in New Delhi which are found to be promising. The results indicated that the air quality has been improved maximum in Eastern Delhi and the NO2 concentrations were reduced by one-fourth than the pre-lockdown period, and thus, reduced activities due to lockdown have had a significant impact. The result also indicates the preciseness of Sentinel (5p) for NO2 concentrations.

Analytical review of AC Distribution in the Delhi Region based on Climate change and Development

Due to the rising temperatures and humidity along with a rise in income levels throughout the world as well as the growing acceptance of air conditioners as a utility and necessity rather than a luxury product, the air conditioning (AC) sector is predicted to see enormous development. Analysis of AC sales in the region of New Delhi, India is the main focus of this study. Not much research has been conducted on Air Conditioner distribution in a region. This paper aims to analyze the sales of the Delhi region which has 969 counters, over 5 years (2018-2022). The development process involves the Extraction of Data from the MNC followed by cleaning, removing the outliers, then data analyzing the data, and finally plotting important charts to conclude our findings. Tools like Python, Pandas, and Matplotlib were extensively used. Data Cleaning and Data visualization are important aspects of any research and plots of Year vs Counter, Channel vs Sales, etc. are plotted. The Top 5 companies on the basis of ACs sold were found out Voltas, Daikin, Hitachi, LG, and OG, and factors like temperature and Development were used to determine why the sales in West Delhi were the highest amongst the other three zones (South, North, East). The product prices of 3Star & 5Star windows, as well as split Ac, were analyzed which gave us an idea of why Voltas is the front runner in selling the maximum ACs in Delhi. Other Factors like Income, Tourism rise in population can be considered for future research. Key Words: Air conditioner, New Delhi, Sales, LG Voltas, Daikin, Analysis

Water Supply Chain Resource Management in Cities Using Data Mining Techniques

This paper presents a comparative research study between a number of data mining techniques, knowledge discovery tools, data analysis and software packages to be used in a Decision Support System (DSS) for Smart water supply chain resources management. The case study deals with the evaluation and comparative research of water quality of city water supply within New Delhi city area. In the case of New-Delhi water supply alternative actions for improving of water supply and quality are defined for efficient supply in distributed area. The real time water quality monitor uses given standards by Water Quality Index (WQI) and Statistical analysis done on it suggests the shortest path between supply station and local area distribution Centre by used WEKA mining tool (decision tree) and OLAP. The results show that the city water isn't supplied efficiently in the city and not within the standard quality criteria of (WHO) standards and Indian standards. Leanings and research challenges observed during this comparative study have also been enumerated.

Spatiotemporal change analysis of land use/land cover in NCT of Delhi, India using geospatial technology

Increasing anthropological and economic activity has transformed human–environment connections. Using remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS), severe issues connected to rapid growth, such as supplemental infrastructure, informal residents, demolition of ecological construction, shortage of natural resources, and environmental contamination, have been studied for a fast-growing metropolis like Delhi. Industrialization accelerates urbanization, resulting in land transformations, which are one of the major uses of natural resources. In a fast-growing city like Delhi, the development has been rapid, and it is important to investigate the factors behind these shifts. For the present study, remote sensing and GIS models are used for land use and land cover (LULC) change detection. The applied model in the study uses the satellite datasets of two different satellites, i.e., Landsat 5 (TM) of 2010 and Landsat 8 (OLI) of 2021, from November with little or no cloud cover, which could block the LULC features. The study compares the temporal LULC map and analyzes the change and increase in urbanization for two periods, 2010 and 2021. In the study, it is revealed that urbanization causes constant shifts in vegetation, built-up area ratio, and land-use patterns. To confirm the same, indices like the normalized difference vegetation index and the normalized difference building index are also studied. Inequitable land use is a major contributor to environmental degradation. The spatial datasets from two time periods used in the study and the database results are helpful in extensive LULC investigations, land use planning, spatial growth, and urbanization patterns in the NCT of Delhi. Further, the change detection model used in the study was supported by the standard accuracy assessment of the Kappa coefficient. Overall accuracy in 2010 was 89.52% with a Kappa statistic of 0.863 and 89.92% with a Kappa statistic of 0.868 in 2021. Such studies using remote sensing and GIS are extremely helpful in understanding and monitoring urban sprawl patterns.

Correlating volcanic emissions from Andaman-Sumatra region to atmospheric pollution in Delhi: A possible scenario

• Causes of whales stranding and Delhi pollution investigated using integrated data • Stranding of whales coincides with time of earthquake and underwater volcanism • Toxic materials from volcanic eruptions lead to increased air and ocean pollution • Prominent cyclonic events are also intimately connected to volcanism • Volcanism-related air pollution affected the human health in Indian sub-continent In the recent past there have been several incidences when large number of whales got stranded and died along the coastal areas of various continents, including India, causes of which are relatively unknown. We have investigated the possible causes of such incidences, based on the analysis of available seismological and GPS data. The time of occurrence of earthquakes of relatively larger magnitude, is found to correspond with the changes in Zenith Total Delay (ZTD). Similarly, stranding of the whales appears to coincide with the time of the underwater volcanism, for example in the Andaman region. The change in ZTD appears to be caused by the increase in the water vapor in the troposphere, as observed in one of the events (Nilam cyclone) in the Bay-of-Bengal region during October 2016. During this volcanic activity, the temperature and toxic contaminated materials from the volcanic eruptions, increased in the surrounding ocean which apparently killed the whales. The volcanic gaseous vents, through which the toxic gases emanated, seems to have apparently affected the whale's lungs. Subsequently, toxic substances which were present in water, severely affected their body organ functions, as the food intake takes place via their skin. Whales have an oxygen rich body, therefore, when lungs are not functioning properly, they may lose the oxygen and gain mass that causes their movement towards the shore. Thus, the influence of underwater volcanic activity, appeared to be a likely cause that led to the demise of sea animals. We also find that the prominent cyclonic events like ‘Ockhi’ which too have an intimate relationship with volcanism, caused severe air pollution that affected the health of the mankind residing in different parts of the Indian sub-continent, especially Delhi and nearby regions.

Breast Cancer Knowledge, Attitude and Practice among Metro Women of India Using Social Media: A Cross-Sectional Study

Background: In recent times, social media has been playing an important role in spreading health awareness including breast cancer awareness. Breast cancer is the most common form of cancer among Indian women. Awareness of its risk factors, symptoms, screening methods and positive attitude towards screening and practices are essential to reduce the advanced stage diagnosis and further its mortality rate. This study aims to evaluate knowledge, attitude, and practice about breast cancer in social media users’ in women in the metro city Delhi of India. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional study from June to December 2019, obtaining data from 397 women using a structured questionnaire. It had four sections that included the socio-demographic profile, knowledge of the risk factors of breast cancer, symptoms and screening, attitude towards screening methods, and its practice to prevent the disease. Results: The mean age of the respondents was 39.34 (±10.22) years. Interestingly, while 92.4% (367/397) knew about the dreaded disease, only 74% knew about its risk factors. The participants who were married, educated and working had reported significantly higher knowledge scores (p ≤ 0.001) Almost three fourth of these women did have a positive attitude towards breast self-examination and clinical examination, and 58% of them were practicing breast self-examination, on monthly basis. Conclusion: Our study findings revealed that women using social media were having a good awareness of risk factors, symptoms, and screening methods. They also have a positive attitude toward screening methods for breast cancer. It highlights the need for awareness generation for practicing early screening behavior.

An Analysis of Human Rights Awareness among the Working Professionals in Delhi Region

Human rights are the rights of every person in any civilized society. Social development is mainly based on social freedom and to enjoy humanity. We are living in a very diverse society where people have different values, religions, colors, and beliefs, but one thing is common, and that is human value. In this paper, the researchers try to understand the level of respect for human rights among the people of a metropolitan city like Delhi. The research mainly focused on working professionals in the Delhi region. The analysis was based on certain criteria to understand the level of understanding of human rights. The study also pointed out that human rights education is very important for social development and must be seriously included in the academic curriculum. The methodology applied in this study for data collection is primary.

Estimation of groundwater storage loss for the Indian Ganga Basin using multiple lines of evidence

We used remote sensing data, field observations and numerical groundwater modelling to investigate long-term groundwater storage losses in the regional aquifer of the Ganga Basin in India. This comprised trend analysis for groundwater level observations from 2851 monitoring bores, groundwater storage anomaly estimation using GRACE and Global Land Data Assimilation System (GLDAS) data sets and numerical modelling of long-term groundwater storage changes underpinned by over 50,000 groundwater level observations and uncertainty analysis. Three analyses based on different methods consistently informed that groundwater storage in the aquifer is declining at a significant rate. Groundwater level trend indicated storage loss in the range − 1.1 to − 3.3 cm year−1 (median − 2.6 cm year−1) while the modelling and GRACE storage anomaly methods indicated the storage loss in the range of − 2.1 to − 4.5 cm year−1 (median − 3.2 cm year−1) and − 1.0 to − 4.2 cm year−1 (median − 1.7 cm year−1) respectively. Probabilistic modelling analysis also indicated that the average groundwater storage is declining in all the major basin states, the highest declining trend being in the western states of Rajasthan, Haryana and Delhi. While smaller compared to the western states, average groundwater storage in states further towards east—Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal within the basin are also declining. Time series of storage anomalies obtained from the three methods showed similar trends. Probabilistic storage analysis using the numerical model vetted by observed trend analysis and GRACE data provides the opportunity for predictive analysis of storage changes for future climate and other scenarios.

Evaluation and Analysis of Environmental Noise Levels in NCT of Delhi, India

The present study reports the analysis of hourly equivalent noise levels of 100 sites in the NCT (National Capital Territory) of Delhi and correlates with the community perception that has not been reported so far. The study presents the environmental noise scenario of 100 sites in the NCT of Delhi, India, including 19 commercial, 9 industrial, 16 residential, 43 silence zones, 3 highway sites, and 10 intersection sites. The hourly equivalent noise levels of 100 sites were monitored at various timings between 9 AM and 8 PM to analyze the environmental noise pollution scenario in the city. Along with the hourly equivalent continuous sound levels (LAeq, 1 h); 10-percentile exceeded sound levels (L10), Traffic Noise Index (TNI), Noise Climate (NC), and Noise Pollution Level (NPL) of these sites were also computed. The LAeq, 1 h levels varied from 66.5 to 84.7 dB(A), and majority of the sites (90.0% sites) exhibited LAeq, 1 h between 70 and 80 dB(A). A noise map was developed in addition to a socio-acoustic survey conducted to analyze the public perception toward noise pollution and associated health hazards. The study revealed that road traffic noise along with honking noise is the major dominant source of noise pollution. It shall be very helpful in recommending appropriate noise control strategies for abatement and control of environmental noise pollution in the city.

Assessing urban heat island intensity and emissions with compressed natural gas in non-commercial vehicles

The paradigm to shift toward cleaner fuel in vehicles and upgrade emission norms is a frequent discussion. The current study is a narrative of comparing fuels (gasoline, diesel, and compressed natural gas) in non-commercial four-wheel vehicles on the urban heat island (UHI) and their effects on emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) and pollutants. We assume all such vehicles are single-fuel driven at a time in the densely populated urban city of Delhi, corresponding to the fiscal year 2017. We estimate that CNG can potentially raise the local temperature due to vehicular heat released and increased power plant load during summer by 1.09 °C and produces ∼1.6 times more heat than gasoline and diesel vehicles for the same distance traveled. CNG lowered the PM2.5 emissions by 81%, NOx by 45%, and VOC by 3%, while CO emissions increased by ∼14% and GHG emissions increased by 15%. For natural gas to become more effective, CNG vehicles' efficiency needs to improve, and the dependence on electricity should be more on cleaner resources. The analysis is based on estimates for Delhi, although the results would apply to other cities in India and globally.

IMPACT OF MINDFULNESS: A PERSPECTIVE OF TEACHERS OF DOE

The department of education (DoE) of the government of NCT of Delhi (GNCT of Delhi) introduced Happiness Curriculum and Entrepreneurship Mindset Curriculum (EMC) in all government schools in 2019 for classes Nursery to VIII, and IX to XII respectively. Both curriculums have a strong component, Mindfulness; the state of being conscious or aware of the present moment. This is an ancient technique of meditation that somewhat differs from meditation and was discovered by Gautam Buddha more than 2500 years ago. The sole purpose of this component in both the curriculum is to teach the students to ensure harmony within their inner self, discover their self in the process of learning, and grow their self to achieve sustainable happiness from momentary happiness. To know the impact of mindfulness in students’ lives in the offline and online mode of teaching, an online survey was conducted by the State Council of Education Research and Teaching (SCERT), New Delhi among the students, teachers, and parents of DoE. This study presents the analysis with the help of statistical techniques such as mean, median, and mode of the teachers’ observations through the questionnaire on the impact of mindfulness on the students’ behavior and their learning process. More than 1400 teachers who are teaching approximately 70 thousand students participated in this survey. The insights drawn from this analysis are discussed in detail in the result section of the study which shows the positive and effective impact of mindfulness on students’ behavior and their learning process.

Diatomological mapping of water bodies of Delhi region for forensic consideration

Diatoms are photosynthetic algae; having a siliceous cell wall known as ‘frustule’. They are abundantly found in every aquatic and terrestrial environment including both fresh and marine water. They are cosmopolitan in nature as these microalgal species are also capable of growing on moist substrates like soil and bark of a plant. The growth of diatoms is very specific to the environmental conditions of a place due to which they are regarded as principal indicators of ecological status of the ecosystem. In forensics also, they play a crucial role in determining the mode and manner of death in cases of drowning. These small entities act as supportive evidence to detect the type of drowning; whether the death of a victim was due to antemortem or postmortem drowning. The diatomological mapping (D-mapping) of water bodies is an essential feature to generate a systematic record of diatom diversity present at a particular site of an aquatic body. The aim of our study is to conduct D-mapping of several regions of Delhi in order to generate a systematic record of diatoms present therein. The results of our study showed about 20 diatom species, some of them were commonly present at all sites, whereas few among them were site specific. The diatom database generated from D-mapping of water bodies can be used as a reference by the forensic pathologists while solving drowning cases, if any, from these aquatic bodies.

Does women’s empowerment and their socioeconomic condition affect the uptake of breast cancer screening? Findings from NFHS-5, India

BackgroundScreening for breast cancer results in early diagnosis of the disease and improves survival. However, increasing participation of women in screening programs is challenging since it is influenced by socioeconomic and cultural factors. This study explores the relationship of socioeconomic and women empowerment factors with breast cancer screening uptakes in the states and union territories of India.MethodsWe used summary reports of secondary data from all the states and union territories based on the fifth wave of the National Family Health Survey in India. This ecological study compares the uptake of breast cancer screening across states of India. We considered socioeconomic status (SES) and women empowerment status (WES) indicators from the survey as independent variables and state-wise breast cancer screening uptake as dependent variables for studying their association. The determinants of breast cancer screening were calculated using a simple linear regression model.ResultsWe found that socioeconomic status and women empowerment status moderately correlated with breast cancer screening uptake (correlation coefficient 0.34 and 0.38, respectively). States with higher rates of literacy among women and of women who had their own bank accounts that they decided how to use reported higher uptake of breast cancer screening (p = 0.01 and 0.03, respectively). However, the correlation was not uniform across all the states. The states of Chandigarh, Delhi, Telangana, and Karnataka showed lower participation despite a higher percentage of literate women and women with their own bank accounts.ConclusionThis study indicates that women’s literacy and having their own bank account may moderately improve their participation in cancer screening. However, higher SES and WES did not translate into better screening in many of the states. More research is needed, especially for states which had low screening uptake despite relatively higher rates of women empowerment.

Determinants of Food Choices among Adults (20–40 Years Old) Residing in Delhi, India

BackgroundIndia has seen a rise in consumption of foods high in fat, sugar, and salt that increases risk of diet-related noncommunicable diseases. Information on the drivers that determine food choices among adults will provide insights for policymakers to promote healthier food selection. ObjectiveThis study assessed the determinants of food choices among adults in India. MethodsA cross-sectional study with a nonprobability purposive sampling technique in which adults were selected from residential colonies belonging to the 4 geographic zones of the city Delhi, India. Data was collected using a mixed methods approach on a total of 589 adults (20–40 y) belonging to upper-middle-income and high-income groups. Data was analyzed by the principal component analysis, chi-squared test, and logistic regression with a level of significance set at P value of < 0.05. ResultsMost influential factors of food choices were brand (30%), nutritive value (22%), and taste (20%). The 3 factors that emerged from principal component analysis that determine food choices among adults were “individual,” “social,” and “food quality/wholesomeness.” Focus group discussions also showed that the majority of participants were influenced by the “brand,” “nutritive value,” and “taste” of the food product while making food choices. Food choices were influenced by the company the person was eating food with, i.e., family members or friends. The cost of the food product was also an important driver of food choices among younger adults. ConclusionPublic health policy should utilize the determinants of food choices to bring about changes in the food environment by increasing the availability of healthier yet tasty food, bearing the cost in mind.

Urban Heritage Mapping: GIS Applications based Archaeological Explorations of Earliest Medieval Cities of Delhi

Urban Heritage Mapping: GIS Applications based Archaeological Explorations of Earliest Medieval Cities of Delhi

Evolution and mitigation of vehicular emissions due to India's Bharat Stage Emission Standards – A case study from Delhi

Vehicular emissions are the major contributors of particulate matter and ozone pollution, which has a greater negative impact on human health, climate and vegetation. Bharat Stage emission standards (BSES) are implemented in India to reduce vehicular emissions and there are several stages of BS norms (BS–I, BS-II, BS-III, BS-IV and BS-VI) proposed since 2000. Currently BS-VI emission norms are implemented nationwide from 2020 onwards. The BS standards came into force in prior advance in Delhi region compared to the other cities. Hence, the current study presents an introspection of the impact of several stages of BS norms in reducing the vehicular emissions in Delhi. The impact is studied through the survival fraction of the vehicles in use with different norms, the fleet average emission factors and the fuel consumption for the years 2012–2022. The analysis shows that the emissions from light-duty vehicles (LDV) are significantly higher than the emissions from heavy-duty vehicles (HDV). In the 2017–2022 age group, the PM2.5 and VOC emissions showed a gradual decrease when compared to the 2012–2017 age group, whereas the CO, NOx, PM10 and BC emissions were fluctuating. Overall, in the case of LDV, except for NOx, all the emissions are controlled as an impact of different stages of BS norms and in the case of HDV almost all the pollutants are regulated. The NOx emissions show a positive correlation with vehicular population and the correlation has not changed with the different norms. Though the NOx emission limits are regulated tightly at each stage of the norms, the increase in NOx emissions is unavoidable. This is due to the discrepancy between real-world conditions and laboratory testing. Enforcing BS-VI standards is expected to eliminate this discrepancy and the advanced aftertreatment technologies adopted in BS-VI engines should interact in a balanced way such that the control of one pollutant should minimize the emission of other pollutants.

Identifying oral microbiome alterations in adult betel quid chewing population of Delhi, India.

The study targets to establish a factorial association of oral microbiome alterations (oral dysbiosis) with betel quid chewing habits through a comparison of the oral microbiome of Betel quid chewers and non-chewing individuals. Oral microbiome analysis of 22 adult individuals in the Delhi region of India through the 16S sequencing approach was carried out to observe the differences in taxonomic abundance and diversity. A significant difference in diversity and richness among Betel Quid Chewers (BQC) and Betel Quid Non-Chewers (BQNC) groups was observed. There were significant differences in alpha diversity among the BQC in comparison to BQNC. However, in the age group of 21-30 years old young BQC and BQNC there was no significant difference in alpha diversity. Similar result was obtained while comparing BQC and Smoker-alcoholic BQC. BQ smoker-chewers expressed significant variance in comparison to BQC, based on cluster pattern analysis. The OTU-based Venn Diagram Analysis revealed an altered microbiota, for BQ chewing group with 0-10 years exposure in comparison to those with 10 years and above. The change in the microbial niche in early chewers may be due to abrupt chemical component exposure affecting the oral cavity, and thereafter establishing a unique microenvironment in the long-term BQC. Linear discriminant analysis revealed, 55 significant features among BQC and Alcoholic-Smoker BQC; and 20 significant features among BQC and Smoker BQC respectively. The study shows the abundance of novel bacterial genera in the BQC oral cavity in addition to the commonly found ones. Since the oral microbiome plays a significant role in maintaining local homeostasis, investigating the link between its imbalance in such conditions that are known to have an association with oral diseases including cancers may lead to the identification of specific microbiome-based signatures for its early diagnosis.

Factors associated with inadequate receipt of components and non-use of antenatal care services in India: a regional analysis

BackgroundFailure to use antenatal care (ANC) and inadequate receipt of components of ANC pose a significant risk for the pregnant woman and the baby. This study aimed to examine a regional analysis of factors associated with receiving no ANC and inadequate receipt of components of ANC services among Indian women.MethodInformation from 173,970 women of reproductive age 15–49 years from the 2019–21 India National Family Health Survey (NFSH-5) was analysed. Logistic regression analyses that adjusted for cluster and survey weights were conducted to assess the socio-demographic and other factors associated with receiving non-use of ANC and inadequate receipt of components of ANC, respectively, in the six regions and 28 states, and 8 union territories in India.ResultsAcross regions in India, 7% of women reported no ANC, and the prevalence of inadequate and adequate receipt of components of ANC in all six regions ranged from 67 to 89% and 8% to 24%, respectively. Of all the 36 federated entities, the prevalence of inadequate receipt of ANC components was less than two-thirds in Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Andaman and the Nicobar Islands, Odisha, and Gujarat. Our analyses revealed that associated factors vary by region, state, and union territories. Women from poor households reported increased odds of receiving no ANC in North, East and North-eastern regions. Women who reported no schooling in South, East and Central regions were associated with increased odds of receiving no ANC. Women from poor households in Himachal Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh states reported significantly higher odds of inadequate components ANC than women from rich households. The receipt of inadequate components of ANC was significantly higher among women who never read magazines in Delhi, Ladakh, Karnataka, Telangana, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, and Mizoram states in India.ConclusionA better understanding of the factors associated with and incorporating them into the short- and long-term intervention strategies, including free financial support from the Indian government to encourage pregnant women from lower socioeconomic groups to use health services across all regions, states and union territories.