National Anti-doping Agencies Research Articles

Anti-doping and National Politics: An Ethnography in Brazilian Anti-doping Around the Era of the Rio de Janeiro Games

Abstract This study is based on an investigation into the Brazilian anti-doping policy, with a specific focus on the establishment and operational mechanisms of the Brazilian Doping Control Authority (ABCD), under the auspices of the Ministry of Sport (ME). The objective was to describe how Brazilian national policy (general political decisions, interests of parties or particular politicians/agents) affects the fight against doping and, vice versa, how the harmonization process controlled by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) affects national sports policy. A multi-sited ethnographic study was undertaken, involving field diary practices, interviews and document analysis. Adopting the perspective of pragmatic sociology, this study delves into the descriptions of three key periods in the recent history of anti-doping in Brazil: the creation of ABCD and the dissolution of ANAD (National Anti-Doping Agency), the realization of the first 100 anti-doping tests by the ABCD (critical period for its members who managed to keep away ex-officers from ANAD) and the impeachment of the Brazilian president in 2016 (ex-officers from ANAD took over the direction of the ABCD). Our analysis allowed us to conclude that ‘diverting others from decision-making spheres’ comprised a political strategy to occupy spaces of power or to stabilize itself in them, which, in this case, allowed the control of anti-doping actions in the country. Local protagonists tried to make use of international injunctions and pressure or local political events to achieve these goals.

Evidence of ostarine excretion in oral fluid after a single controlled oral administration

The presence of ostarine, a selective androgen receptor modulator (SARM) in an athlete’s urine specimen constitutes one of the most frequent anti-doping rules violation as the drug is listed as a member of the S1.2 class “other anabolic agents” of the World Anti-doping Agency Prohibited List, forbidden in- and out-competition. It is possible to challenge this violation but it is at the charge of the athlete to prove innocence. The conditions to evidence no fault or negligence are mostly based on 2 points: 1. the athlete must present verified circumstances of contamination and the source of contamination must be identified; and 2. there must be verified claims by the athlete that the violation was not intentional.Some months before the Olympic games, a female athlete was suspended by a national anti-doping agency because of an adverse analytical finding for ostarine. She claimed that her violation was due to drug transfer when kissing her boyfriend, who did not inform her about his ostarine daily intake. To document this claim (excretion of ostarine in oral fluid in sufficient amounts), a male volunteer ingested 17.3 mg of ostarine (dose verified by 1H NMR). Oral fluid was collected over 8 h using the NeoSal™ collection device and was tested by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. Maximal ostarine concentration was 468 ng/mL at T + 15 min, which can also be partially attributed to mouth contamination. Ostarine was detectable during the whole period of test, with concentrations at 1–2 ng/mL after T + 4 h. These results support drug transfer during kissing and subsequent possible contamination of the partner.

Medical Treatment in Men with Infertility Can Be Misinterpreted as Doping Practice: A Case of Unintentional World Anti-doping Agency (WADA) Code Violation

Introduction: Clomiphene, a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM), is a drug which is primarily used for the treatment of anovulatory infertility in female patients. Although as an off-label use, some authorities and physicians use this drug for the treatment of idiopathic oligoasthenospermia in male patients. Clomiphene has two isomers and multiple metabolites, and its cis isomer (Zuclomiphene) can be detected in urine for as long as eight months in some cases. Case Presentation: A 30-year-old male futsal player used clomiphene for infertility for two months. After 17 weeks from the last dose, his urine sample result came out as an adverse analytical finding for clomiphene. Despite the initial ruling on a four-year ban by the national anti-doping agency, the appeals committee reduced the athlete's ban to two years after receiving explanations from the athlete, his appropriate doping record, and the fact that no trace of other substances, such as anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) was found in the player's sample. Conclusions: In this article, the authors try to show the importance of athletes' familiarity with the anti-doping code and try to emphasize the importance of the fact that athletes should receive therapeutic use exemption (TUE) if they take any drugs with doping potential.

Ophthalmic drug therapy in professional athletes-what is allowed, what is doping?

At first sight, ophthalmic drugs are not necessarily suspected of being used as performance-enhancing agents in competitive sports. However, there are some restrictions that must be noted, especially when certain drugs are taken orally. Astructured analysis of the doping relevance of ophthalmic drugs was performed on the basis of aliterature review, taking into account the current guidelines of the National Anti-Doping Agency of Germany and the World Anti-Doping Agency. Use of the most common ophthalmological drug groups is possible without restrictions, especially in the case of topical application. An exception is the oral use of diuretics, which is prohibited at all times. For glucocorticoids, topical application to the eye is allowed, but oral application is prohibited in competition. Asimilar restriction applies to the use of epinephrin, for which all forms of systemic application are prohibited in competition. When taking beta-blockers, the sport being played is the determining factor: use is prohibited in billiards, archery, darts, golf, motor sports, shooting sports, skiing/snowboarding, ski jumping, freestyle aerials/half pipe, snowboard half pipe/big air, and underwater sports. For shooting and archery, beta-blockers are also prohibited outside of competitions. Athletes with pre-existing ophthalmological conditions should seek comprehensive advice from an ophthalmologist before using any medication, and together they should choose apermissible active ingredient, consider the appropriate route of application, and, if necessary, apply for aTherapeutic Use Exemption. It is currently not known how many of the national and international athletes have to be treated with eye drops.

ПРОЦЕССУАЛЬНОЕ ПОЛОЖЕНИЕ ИНФОРМАТОРА ВСЕМИРНОГО АНТИДОПИНГОВОГО АГЕНТСТВА (ВАДА)

The well-known anti-doping investigations of the last decade led to the disqualification from participation in the Olympics not only of individual athletes who were convicted of taking illegal drugs, but entire sports federations, the national anti-doping agencies were deprived of their accreditation. Bringing to justice a wide range of individuals not directly related to the use of doping requires a new approach to evidence as such and to the way it is presented. The purpose of this study is to study the status and procedural situation of WADA whistleblowers – the persons on whose testimony most of the investigations were based. The authors analyze the distinctive procedural features of informants and a set of requirements for information provided by informants. The article discusses the issue of mixing the statuses of a witness and an accomplice in the formation of approaches to determining the informant, with the legal consequences arising from these statuses. The authors note that WADA, as an international organization, does not have the functionality to ensure the protection of a whistle-blower from domestic persecution, for this reason, national law enforcement agencies play the main role in protecting whistleblowers. The extent and form of protection also depends on the status of anti-doping investigations and the assessment of doping as an offense punishable by criminal proceedings, civil or administrative.

New National Framework For Tackling The Menace Of Doping In India: An Overview

Doping means the act of giving a person or animal drugs in order to make them perform better or worse in competition. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) established WADA as a foundation for battling doping in sports. Olympic Athletes can be tested anytime or anywhere. Urine or blood samples are collected by trained and accredited doping control personnel to test for the presence of anti-doping substances. According to the WADA’s December 2019 Anti-Doping Testing Statistics Report, India topped the list for the first time, with 225 positive instances out of 4,004 samples. Athletics was one of the worst defaulters. In this background, recently, in Loksabha, the National Anti-Doping Bill of 2021 was introduced. It aims to outlaw doping in sports and establishes a new National Anti-Doping Agency. Various studies results show that doping was done for the best result, as well as for the money and for the limelight. Doping, especially at the grassroots level, a lack of understanding of athletes’ and mentors’ accounts is a major concern. Numerous reasons that favour doping in India, the lack of a strong governance framework, as well as political influence, are important contributors to the country’s incapacity to deal with the problem. Therefore the government of India proposes to bring The National Anti-doping Act, 2021 replacing the earlier authorities and establishing new supporting machinery as well as authorities.

Sports pharmacists: A noble evolving professional in Indian Pharmaceutical Arena

In Sports, the use of Prohibited substance or Prohibited methods or breaking Anti-Doping Rules Violations (ADRV) is termed as Doping. Anti-Doping Administrative Management System (ADAMS) has reported an average increase of 5.81% per year in the number of overall samples analysed (Olympic Sports and NonOlympic Sports) for Anti-doping tests over the last 15 years (2003-2017). Since Mexico-1968 Olympic to Pyeongchang-2018 Olympic, 140 medals were stripped from sports persons due to Adverse Analytical Finding (AAF) at various sports. In sports, there are seven broad classes of substance that are categorized under doping.Several Anti-Doping organizations like National Anti-Doping Agency and World Anti-Doping Agency are working together to prevent doping from sports, providing equal chance to each sports person and to protect health of the athletes. Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) is the final court appeal for any National Anti-Doping Organization or whichever athlete or stakeholders who are breaking the ADRV. Pharmacists are playing an important role in sports by counseling athletes, advising physician and athletic personnel and enlightening the community about the ill effects of Anti-Doping. Sports Pharmacist with their knowledge and expertise can contribute immensely for spreading awareness about anti-doping practices among sports person and hence there is need to develop the concept of Sports Pharmacist in Indian Pharmaceutical Arena

Negotiating privacy. Athletes’ assessment and knowledge of the ADAMS

Elite athletes must comply with a complex system of controls in order to participate in international sports and competitions. The Anti-Doping Analysis Management System (ADAMS) is one of the control devices that subject athletes to a regime of control and surveillance. Anti-doping organisations (ADOs) and national and international sports federations, for example, make use of their whereabouts data for test planning and decision-making regarding test routines. Athletes’ participation is mandatory, otherwise they cannot take part in competitive sports. This, in return, means that they agree to have their privacy and that of others compromised. Thus, a tension exists between the fight against doping and the integrity of privacy. Through a qualitative study on doping, controls and control practices we have learned that athletes view ADAMS as a necessary nuisance, but we do not know what they actually know about the system. We conducted a survey among German elite athletes (summer and fall 2016) to further explore the usage routines of ADAMS, the athletes’ knowledge of the tool and their assessment of possible privacy infringements. A total of 523 German athletes registered in the Registered Testing Pool and National Testing Pool (N = 2,152) of the National Anti-Doping Agency of Germany, who provided us with a representative sample, took part. We found from the survey that athletes have rather contradictory views concerning ADAMS, and often little knowledge of the system as such and would (or know how to) engage in playing the system to avoid controls. Athletes generally voice strong feelings about privacy, while simultaneously accepting ADAMS despite the concerns raised. However, they want more transparency regarding the system and the fight against doping. We conclude our analysis with a discussion of ADAMS as a surveillance system that, by storing, processing and using data for the purpose of anti-doping measures, engages in social sorting among athletes and creates what we call spillover effects and apparent power asymmetries that have been established throughout the system. We argue for a new balance within the system of controls, in which athletes are to be treated as actors, i.e. equal stakeholders who take part in decision-making regarding the system, rather than simply users and clients of a control interface. It seems that ADAMS threatens athletes’ privacy and that of their social environment rather than guaranteeing fairness for them.

Korean national athletes\u2019 knowledge, practices, and attitudes of doping: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundDespite the efforts of the World Anti-Doping Agency and national anti-doping agencies at the international level, a relatively low and steady rate of positive doping tests still persists all over the world. Evidence on adolescents using doping substances exists, and the proportion of adolescents engaging in doping practices is small but significant. In relation to the international research trends on anti-doping, this study aims to evaluate doping knowledge, practices, and attitudes among Korean adult and adolescent elite athletes to provide effective information on anti-doping policies and education programs.MethodsThis study was a cross-sectional study of 454 Korean elite athletes (249 adults in 23 events and 205 adolescents in 22 events). Data were collected by an interviewer-administered questionnaire containing items regarding doping practices and knowledge, brief definitions of performance-enhancing substances/methods and recreational substances, and the Performance Enhancement Attitude Scale (PEAS).ResultsAdolescent (47.3%) and adult (57.0%) athletes received information on banned substances of their respective sports from the Korea Anti-Doping Agency, and 39.0 and 53.4% of adolescents and adults, respectively, had knowledge of banned substances and had permissive attitudes toward doping compared to those who were unaware. Adolescent and adult athletes have inadvertently (1.5 and 3.6%, respectively) or knowingly (1.0 and 2.8%, respectively) taken banned performance-enhancing substances, and 2.4 and 3.2%, respectively, knew someone who had taken banned substances. And the adolescent athletes in motor skill category (PEAS: 40.24 ± 10.91) were more permissive toward doping than those in team category (PEAS: 35.08 ± 10.21).ConclusionAn in-depth anti-doping education for Korean athletes should be more widely implemented, and effective anti-doping policy should meet the athletes’ demographic characteristics, personalities, and values.

Seizures of doping substances at the Swiss Border — a descriptive investigation

This retrospective study evaluates the content, the destination and the source of 960 postal items seized by the Swiss customs authorities at the Swiss border between 2013 and 2014. The packages were seized because they contained at least one prohibited doping product as identified by the Swiss law on encouraging sports and physical activity. A total number of 1825 different doping products were confiscated from these parcels, accounting for an average of 1.9 doping products per seized item. In 74% of the cases, where seizures were made, anabolic androgenic steroids, mostly testosterone esters, were discovered. An obvious trading channel for doping products was identified in this study. The seized compounds were predominately manufactured in Asian countries, but sent to Switzerland mostly via South Eastern Europe countries. Due to the unique collaboration between the Swiss customs authorities and the national anti-doping agency, this study uncovered an alarming trend of illegal doping product trafficked to Switzerland.

German sports, doping, and politics: a history of performance enhancement

Introduction - Basics and Problem Definition The Role of Doping in the Relationship between Politics, Sporting Policies, and Sports Methodological Basics: Sources and Documents State of the Art Scientific Debate on Doping and Public Moralization Problems of Empirical Evaluation and Proving Doping I. From Common Practice to Prohibition - the Beginnings of Doping and Anti-Doping in German Sport of the 1950s and 1960s Introduction Sport in the Federal Republic of Germany after the Second World War Structures and Self-Perceptions of the German Federal Sports Organizations Sports Policy Physical Health as a Common Objective - a Legitimation for State Sponsoring Competitive Sports and National Representation: The Delayed Start - Germany in the Context of International Sports Development The Medicalization of Society and Sport and other Doping and Anti-Doping Issues Spread and Development of Anti-Doping in the 1950s and 1960s Self-Concept and Functions of German Sports Medicine Anti-Doping Policies in the 1950s and 1960s Doping Rules of Some Sports Federations The Role of State and Government in Anti-Doping Policies Doping During the 1950s and 1960s - Intermediate Results II. Cold War and the Climax of Doping in Germany - From the Munich Olympics of 1972 via Montreal 1976 to the Introduction of Out-of-Competition Controls in the 1980s Introduction The 1972 Olympic Games of Munich and Their Importance for the Development of Doping and Anti-Doping in Germany Anti-doping Politics of the IOC in the 1970s Sport Politics, Doping and Anti-Doping in West Germany Interim Results Doping and Anti-Doping up to the Olympic Games of Montreal in 1976 Problems in Preventing Anabolic Steroids in Sport Anabolic Steroids, their Prevalence in Top Level Sport and Doping Controls The Doping Games of Montreal 1976: Kolbe Injection and Air Clyster Scandal - and their Political Consequences Political Contextualization of Doping and Anti-Doping in the 1970s and 1980s German Secret Services on Doping Doping and West German Sports Medicine Adaptation by West German Sport Organizations Consequences of State and Sport Policies - the Grundsatzerklarung fur den Spitzensport of 1977 Doping Enhancement in West German Sport Doping and Anti-Doping Policies between 1977 and 1989 The Case of Birgit Dressel Preventive Controls Anti-Doping: Some Facts and Problems A Doubtful Research Project: The Study of Rejuvenation/ Regeneration by Means of Testosterone Introduction of Out-of-Competition Controls Interim Results - Changes to Doping and Anti-Doping Policies during the 1970s and 1980s III. Doping and Anti-Doping in the Process of German Reunification State and Sport, Doping and Anti-Doping in West Germany before 1990 Revelations of Doping by the German Media after Unification Responses from Sport and Politics The Parliament Veto: Budget Cut in 1991/92 European and International Perspectives The Case of Dieter Baumann - a Blow in the Fight against Doping Interim Results: Reunification, Rehabilitation and New Beginnings International Strategies of Anti-Doping - Germany on the Path to the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) The Establishment of an International Political Anti-Doping Regime From Lausanne to the WADA WADA as the New Center of the International Fight against Doping Effects of the International Anti-Doping Movement on German Anti-Doping Policies: From the Anti-Doping Commission of the German Sport Federation (DSB) to the National Anti-Doping Agency (NADA) German Anti-Doping Crisis of 2007 The Debate on an Anti-Doping Law Interim Results: Doping in the Context of Sport, State and Society Conclusion The German Story of Doping - a Relevant Element of the Overall Sports Process Explanations for the Doping and Anti-Doping Process Relevance of the Cold War Changes of the Relationship between State and Sport Bibliography Chronology List of abbreviations Index About the Authors

Theoretical and Methodological Aspects on Doping Phenomenon in Elite Athletes

In a sports world where the trend to obtain high performance by any means is increasing, the National Anti-Doping Agency assumes an active role in initiating and developing educational programs aimed to prevent doping substances use. The educational programs can achieve their purpose only by learning the mechanisms underlying athletes’ trend to consume these substances and by proposing coherent and consistent solutions in order to prevent the occurrence of such behaviors. In this paper, we intend to emphasize the research methodology applied by ANAD in order to establish the pattern of risk factors on doping substances use in athletes.

Sanctions for doping in sport

Top-level sport imposes new and more demanding physical and psychological pressures, and the desire for competing, winning and selfassertion leads athletes into temptation to use prohibited substances in order to achieve the best possible results. Regardless of the fact that the adverse consequences of prohibited substances are well-known, prestige and the need to dominate sports arenas have led to their use in sports. Doping is one of the biggest issues in sport today, and the fight against it is a strategic objective on both global and national levels. World Anti-Doping Agency, the International Olympic Committee, international sports federations, national anti-doping agencies, national sports federations, as well as governments and their repressive apparatuses are all involved in the fight against doping in sport. This paper points to a different etymology and phenomenology of doping, the beginnings of doping in sport, sports doping scandals as well as the most important international instruments regulating this issue. Also, there is a special reference in this paper to the criminal and misdemeanor sanctions for doping in sport. In Serbia doping in sport is prohibited by the Law on Prevention of Doping in Sports which came into force in 2005 and which prescribes the measures and activities aimed at prevention of doping in sport. In this context, the law provides for the following three criminal offenses: use of doping substances, facilitating the use of doping substances, and unauthorized production and putting on traffic of doping substances. In addition, aiming at curbing the abuse of doping this law also provides for two violations. More frequent and repetitive doping scandals indicate that doping despite long-standing sanctions is still present in sports, which suggests that sanctions alone have not given satisfactory results so far.

Wie harmlos sind Kopfbälle? Hypogonadotroper Hypogonadismus nach leichten Schädel-Hirn-Traumata bei einem Profi-Fußballspieler

A 27-year-old man was admitted to our outpatient clinic with symptoms of loss at libido, erectile dysfunction and fatigue. He had been playing soccer from the age of 7, for the last 10 years as a high-level professional. During that time repeated mild head-trauma without loss of consciousness had occurred, mainly triggered by excessive header-training and occasional collisions. Serum levels of testosterone and luteinizing hormone were low. A gonadotropin releasing hormone loading test revealed significant gonadotropin responses, therefore pituitary gonadotropic insufficiency was unlikely. Further pituitary insufficiency of any other axis was also excluded by insulin hypoglycemia test. Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain revealed no significant abnormalities of the hypothalamic-pituitary unit. Testosterone substitution, at first applied transdermally, then intramuscularly, was initiated after approval by the National Anti Doping Agency. Four months later most of the symptoms had regressed. Pituitary deficiency in the course of craniocerebral trauma is frequent and may be transient or permanent, mostly affecting somatotropic or gonadotropic function. Hormonal imbalances may also be observed after mild but repeated trauma without loss of consciousness and should be considered in cases of isolated pituitary dysfunction, since such traumas may often occur in contacts sports such as boxing or intensive soccer play.

Performance-enhancing drugs in sports and the role of doctor: are there guidelines?

There is little data in India on the use of performance enhancing drugs in sports. But personal and incidental information shows that their use is far more extensive than is believed. This use occurs beyond the arena of high-level competitive sports. Even if the guidelines of the national and world anti-doping agencies were to become effective, they would not impact the larger environment where such drug use appears to be extensive. Which ethical guidelines advise the sports medical practitioner in prescribing medicines and training regimes for the athlete? Of particular concern is the role of paediatricians since training for sports or physical fitness is increasingly a youth phenomenon. The following is a discussion note, prompted by personal and anecdotal experience.

A Note on the International Coordination of Antidoping Policies

We apply ideas put forward in the literature on the international coordination of macroeconomic and trade policies to study the merits of an international coordination of antidoping policies. Without international coordination of antidoping policies, sports associations and National Antidoping Agencies that comply with an international regulatory framework like the World Antidoping Code are at a disadvantage. We sketch a simple game-theoretic model to illustrate this disadvantage, and the advantage of an international coordination of antidoping policies. Finally, we address the limitations of our model and how it could be extended in future research.

Anti‐Dope Testing in Sport: The History and the Science

This summer, as the XXX modern Olympic Games and the XIV Summer Paralympic Games were held in London, millions watched magnificent efforts from the best athletes in the world. The ability of the athletes to produce their best personal performances in the spotlight and the pressure of the Olympic Games was a testament to the human spirit. But, because the margin between winning and losing is so small, one imprecisely placed foot or hand, one moment of indecision, one gust of wind at the wrong moment, and the gold medal is gone. Behind the scenes at these Olympics—properly so— was a scientific team performing under great pressure to ensure safe and fair competition by testing urine and blood for traces of performance-enhancing prohibited substances and methods. Their efforts were crucial, because, in partnership with the clean athletes, they support the integrity and the spirit of sport. More than 1000 samples were analyzed within a few days after each event for stimulants, steroids, masking agents, recombinant proteins like erythropoietin and growth hormone (GH), and other substances on the World AntiDoping Agency (WADA) Prohibited List (1). The List of Prohibited Substances and Methods is maintained by a committee of internationally recognized scientists and sport administrators. A revised list is released annually by the WADA. In deciding whether to add a compound or method to the list, the committee considers whether there is potential to enhance performance; a potential health risk for the athlete; or if use of the substance or method violates the spirit of sport. If two of the three criteria are met, the substance is added to the Prohibited List. The inclusion of the word “potential” recognizes that a substance may emerge for which there are no toxicological data. For example, the identification of the “designer” steroid tetrahydrogestrinone (THG) in a drop of fluid in a syringe turned in to the U.S. Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) in 2003 illustrates the problem. THG had been developed by Wyeth in the 1960s and taken to clinical trials as a potential anabolic agent, but never brought to market. It was impossible to locate any records from the clinical trials 40 years after the fact. THG had been shown to have anabolic activity (2). There were no publications about toxicological studies, but as a 17 -methyl steroid, comparison to similar structures strongly suggested the potential for some degree of hepatotoxicity. Based on this information, THG was added to the Prohibited List in 2006.

The evolving science of detection of 'blood doping'.

Blood doping practices in sports have been around for at least half a century and will likely remain for several years to come. The main reason for the various forms of blood doping to be common is that they are easy to perform, and the effects on exercise performance are gigantic. Yet another reason for blood doping to be a popular illicit practice is that detection is difficult. For autologous blood transfusions, for example, no direct test exists, and the direct testing of misuse with recombinant human erythropoietin (rhEpo) has proven very difficult despite a test exists. Future blood doping practice will likely include the stabilization of the transcription factor hypoxia-inducible factor which leads to an increased endogenous erythropoietin synthesis. It seems unrealistic to develop specific test against such drugs (and the copies hereof originating from illegal laboratories). In an attempt to detect and limit blood doping, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) has launched the Athlete Biological Passport where indirect markers for all types of blood doping are evaluated on an individual level. The approach seemed promising, but a recent publication demonstrates the system to be incapable of detecting even a single subject as 'suspicious' while treated with rhEpo for 10-12 weeks. Sad to say, the hope that the 2012 London Olympics should be cleaner in regard to blood doping seems faint. We propose that WADA strengthens the quality and capacities of the National Anti-Doping Agencies and that they work more efficiently with the international sports federations in an attempt to limit blood doping.

Scandinavian perspectives on doping – a comparative policy analysis in relation to the international process of institutionalizing anti-doping

This study investigates why, unlike Sweden, Denmark and Norway have decided to establish independent national anti-doping agencies. Starting off from a new institutional perspective, a qualitative comparative method is applied, and this study outlines variables that enable us to explain the differences and similarities of the two approaches. It is concluded that Sweden differs because doping is regarded as a broader public health issue and thus administratively dealt with in an area not only concerned with sport, while Sweden has a tradition of low political interference in elite sport. Despite various differences, the similar solutions chosen by Denmark and Norway are explained by their focus on doping in elite sport, combined with a high political profile in anti-doping. Although one can argue in favour of sport as an example of a world-society culture with a huge institutionalizing impact, this study reveals a space open for national interpretation. Finally, this article discusses future challenges for the two models analysed.

Are there honest intentions in the fight against doping? The case of Cyprus

Doping and the use of prohibited substances is one of the major issues that sport is facing currently in Cyprus. The fact that an increasing number of athletes tested positive on the island over the last couple of years raised additional concerns and the issue became even more contentious. In this climate of controversy and concern regarding doping and the use of prohibited substances by athletes in Cyprus, the Cyprus Sport Organization took a radical decision in 2008 in which the Cyprus National Anti-Doping Agency, which had been operating for over 20 years as a branch of the Cyprus Sport Organization, would cease to operate by May 2009, giving its position over to the Cyprus National Anti-Doping Organization (NADO), as prescribed by the international anti-doping agencies. The aim of this paper is to examine one basic issue: Are there honest intentions or not in the fight against doping in the case of Cyprus? The cause for this research paper arose from the experiences gathered during the process of the transformation of the Cyprus National Anti-Doping Agency to a National Anti-Doping Organization, and especially from the resistance that evolved from the top sports administrators in the National Sports Federations in Cyprus. What are the true intentions of sports administrators, then? Do they honestly wish to fight doping or not?