Nakuru Counties Research Articles

Sentiment Analysis Model for Public Participation Forums in County Governments

Public participation is important because it helps to close the gap between the public, private sector and the government. However, a successful devolution process in Kenya is hampered by a lack of/inadequate public participation in county governments. Communications gaps are one of the arguments made for this development. The main objective of the study was to develop a sentiment analysis model for use in public participation forums in County Governments in Kenya. The study was conducted through the design thinking process. The population of interest of this study comprised of county management and staff also area residents in Nakuru, Busia and Baringo counties who have participated in public participation forums before. The Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT) approach was used to create the cloud NLP package and obtain user sentiment magnitudes for the sentiment analysis model. Following that, cross validation was utilized to assess the performance indicators during the design stage, and users took part in the model's assessment. The overall conclusion of validation is that the model performed as expected and recorded instrumental results in increasing effective public participation in county governments in Kenya and strengthen the devolution process. This study recommends that the model can be cascaded to all the counties in Kenya to improve the efficiency of public participation.

Assessment of hygiene practices and microbial safety of milk supplied by smallholder farmers to processors in selected counties in Kenya

Smallholder farmers dominate the Kenyan dairy sector producing 95% of the total milk. However, several concerns have been raised on the quality and safety of the milk they produce. This study assessed the hygienic practices and microbial safety of milk supplied by smallholder farmers to processors in Bomet, Nyeri, and Nakuru counties in Kenya. Interviews and direct observations were carried out to assess hygiene and handling practices by farmers and a total of 92 milk samples were collected along four collection channels: direct suppliers, traders, cooperatives with coolers, and cooperatives without coolers. Microbial analysis was done following standard procedures and data analysed using GenStat and SPSS. This study revealed that farmers did not employ good hygienic practices in their routine dairy management. They used plastic containers for milking and milk storage (34.2%); they did not clean sheds (47.9%) and did not set aside cows that suffered from mastitis factors (83.6%), resulting in poor microbial quality of raw milk along the collection channels. The highest mean total viable counts (8.72 log10 cfu/ml) were recorded in Nakuru while Nyeri had the highest mean E. coli counts (4.97 log10 cfu/ml) and Bomet recorded the highest mean counts of 5.13 and 5.78 log10 cfu/ml for Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes respectively. Based on all above-mentioned parameters, the microbial load in most samples from all three counties exceeded the set Kenyan standards. Farmer training, improving road infrastructure, use of instant coolers at cooperatives, and quality-based payment systems are recommended as measures to curb microbial growth.

Factors that Influence Adoption of New Improved Wheat Varieties by Farmers in Nakuru and Narok, Kenya

This study examines the factors that influence the adoption of new improved wheat varieties (NIWV) by wheat farmers in Nakuru and Narok counties in Kenya. Cross-sectional data from 344 randomly selected wheat farmers from the Njoro and Rongai sub-Counties in Nakuru County; and Narok South and Narok North sub-counties in Narok County, Kenya were investigated. Probit model was run to estimate the factors influencing the adoption rate of improved new wheat varieties. Results derived from model estimates indicate that farmers' adoption of improved wheat varieties in the study area is positive due to education, availability of information, off-farm income, distance to inputs and produce markets, and exposure to extension advice services and access to credits. The study recommends that the public and private sectors promote access to advisory services to improve the dissemination of certified wheat seeds to farmers through training, workshops, and seminars.

ASSESSMENT OF THE VARIOUS TYPES OF INFORMAL HOSPITALITY SERVICES OFFERED BY WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS IN KENYA

Purpose: Women have ventured into the informal hospitality sector to provide different services to improve their socio-economic well-being in the developed world and Africa. Similar results to assess informal hospitality services women entrepreneurs in Kenya have also been reported. These services include outside catering, events management, and housekeeping services.
 Methodology: The study employed a qualitative research design to collect data from women entrepreneurs providing informal hospitality services through interviews and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). The study population was drawn from women groups providing informal hospitality services and are registered by Social Services offices from Muranga, Kakamega, Nakuru, and Kisumu Counties. The study used an in-depth interview where the researcher interviewed eight critical informants from the four Counties. The purposive sampling method was used to pick the eight women entrepreneurs from the universal target population of the study. Further, the researcher carried out one (1) FGD with a total of 8 participants, 6 participants purposively identified from urban-based Sub-Counties and two (2) participants from the rural-based Sub-Counties. The researcher used framework analysis, where the collected data from interviews and FGD were organized into themes based on the study objectives.
 Findings: The study found out that women in the informal hospitality services in Nakuru, Kisumu, Muranga, and Kakamega Counties were doing outside catering services and events management to improve their socio-economic well-being. The women entrepreneurs found these services profitable and were overwhelmingly willing to continue with the services, unlike housekeeping services that some could offer as free services to the community.
 Recommendation: The women enterpreneurs in the informal hospitality services in the four Counties need capacity building and more funding from both the County and National Governments so as to expand and diversify their businesses.

The Challenges in the Provision of Informal Hospitality Services to Socio-Economic Well-Being of Women Entrepreneurs in Kenya

Women experience various challenges as they undertake entrepreneurship in both developed and developing worlds. Similar experiences have been reported in Kenya in this study where the objective was to understand the challenges in the provision of informal hospitality services to socio-economic well-being of women entrepreneurs in Kenya. The study used a qualitative approach with women from Muranga, Kakamega, Nakuru, and Kisumu Counties who work in informal hospitality and are registered with the Social Services Offices. Purposive sampling method was used to pick the 8 women entrepreneurs from the target population for key informant interviews, and 1 Focus Group Discussion was carried out with 8 participants. The study revealed that women in informal hospitality services in the 4 Counties faced many challenges in the provision of these services: records keeping, customers’ management, government registrations, drawing action plans, completion, getting loans and business locations. Women entrepreneurs have developed coping mechanisms to deal with these challenges with the help of the government. Keywords: Socio-Economic Well-Being, Women Enterpreneurs, Informal Hospitality Services, Challenges

Milk quality and hygiene: Knowledge, attitudes and practices of smallholder dairy farmers in central Kenya

Milk production is an important livelihood source for smallholder dairy farmers in low-to-middle-income countries (LMICs) such as Kenya. However, milk quality and safety are a challenge due to unhygienic handling and non-adherence to food safety standards. The objective of this study was to investigate the knowledge, attitudes and adoption of milk quality and food safety practices by smallholder farmers in Kenya. Ten Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), involving 71 smallholder farmers, were held to collect qualitative data on knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAPs) of smallholder dairy farmers in Laikipia, Nakuru, and Nyandarua counties. Additionally, data were collected through a cross-sectional administered to 652 smallholder farming households. The results of the study revealed low knowledge level and negative attitudes towards respecting antibiotics treatment withdrawal periods, milk quality standards and food safety regulations. Farmers stated they had received low levels of training on milk quality and safety standards. The majority of farmers adopted animal health measures and hygienic measures such as hand washing and udder cleaning. However, unhygienic milking environments, the use of plastic containers, the use of untreated water, and lack of teat dipping compromised milk quality and safety. Currently, milk production, handling and consumption could expose actors along the dairy value chain to health risks. The adoption of milk quality and food safety practices was influenced by farmers’ knowledge, socioeconomic characteristics, and choice of marketing channel. There is a need to improve farmers’ knowledge and attitudes and implement hygienic control, disease control and antibiotic residue control practices in the milk production process to meet required milk quality and food safety standards. Awareness campaigns and training programmes for smallholder dairy farmers could foster behavioural change and lead to an improvement in milk quality in Kenya. • Kenya dairy sector is constrained by farmers' low adherence to milk quality standards. • Lack of training hinders farmers' compliance with milk quality standards. • Poor farm-level hygiene compromises milk quality and safety. • Socioeconomic characteristics determine farmers' milk quality standards compliance.

Persistence and Changing Distribution of Leishmaniases in Kenya Require a Paradigm Shift.

Background Leishmaniases present a major global public health problem, being responsible for between 40,000 and 50,000 deaths annually. The resultant morbidity affects the economic productivity and quality of life of individuals in endemic regions. As zoonotic disease(s), leishmaniases have become persistent with intermittent transmission and a tendency to disappear and reemerge, straining the fragile healthcare infrastructure in Kenya. There is a need to better understand disease(s) dynamics in Kenya. Objectives of the study. The status of leishmaniases in Kenya was reviewed to refocus and influence the attention of the scientific community and intervention strategies/policies on this persistent public health problem. Methodology. Electronic and manual literature were searched for relevant scholarly peer-reviewed published articles on leishmaniases. Literatures were obtained from PubMed, Medline, EBSCO, Host, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar. Findings. The diseases are reported to be persistent as emerging and reemerging within and outside traditional endemic regions. Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) has maintained restricted foci in Nyandarua, Baringo, Nakuru counties, and Mount Elgon area in Bungoma County. Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) was most prevalent with cases in Baringo, Turkana, West Pokot, Isiolo, Kitui, Meru, Machakos, Marsabit, and Wajir counties. New VL cases/foci reported in formerly nonendemic regions/beyond traditional foci of Garissa and Mandera counties. Diagnostics, management, and control strategies have remained unchanged even in the face of changing disease epidemiology. Conclusion Leishmaniases are emerging and reemerging persistent infections in remote rural settings in Kenya. The adopted intervention strategies have not been effective over the years, and this has led to disease spread to formerly nonendemic areas of Kenya. The diseases spread have been further enhanced by population growth and movement, environmental and climate changes, and social conflicts. It is evident that without a paradigm shift in control methods, diagnostic techniques, and treatment protocols, the diseases may spread to even more areas in the country.

The Role and Sustainability of Community-based County Government Funded Agricultural Infrastructure Projects: A Case of Community Cattle Dips and Acaricides Use in Kilifi, Kajiado and Nakuru Counties

The study objective was to provide baseline and reference data on status and use of acaricides based on type or active ingredients by individual farmers and in public cattle dip maintained by county governments. The survey was conducted through a cross-sectional study in three counties (Kilifi, Kajiado and Nakuru), based on livestock farming intensive (low, medium and high) respectively. A total of 72 farmers were sampled where Questionnaire and informal interview were used to collect data on acaricides use, grazing method, herd characteristics, production and marketing. Data obtained was stored in excel spread sheets coded and analyzed using Statistical Package for social Scientists (SPSS). Grazing systems were conventional grazing (31), zero grazing (10) and fenced pastures (41). Collapse of county governments maintained cattle dips was observed. Hence use of alternative methods by farmers; spray race (22) and mechanical (hand) spray (31). Chemicals used included TRIATIX (12), DUODIP (11), STELADONE (7) among others with majority of the farmers (32) spraying once a week. Water sources for use were tap (piped) water (8), Borehole (54), community dams (3), river water (4) and harvested rain water (1). Majority of farmers (43) used manual methods of milking while 29 farmers used automated machines. Nakuru had highest number of lactating cattle (1422) and milk production (22,480 litres), followed by Kajiado (247) with low milk production (371 litres) compared to production Kilifi production (1470 litres) herd (150). Milk was sold to KCC, Brookside and vendors with farmers adding little value (Yoghurt and Mala). In conclusion, extensive use of chemicals may accumulate in the ecosystem thus a public health problem with little productivity. Data forms basis for further research and policy formulation on acaricides use. Analysis of hydro-chemical parameters and acaricides in the water source is recommended to ascertain its suitability for Agricultural and domestic use.

English

Pyricularia grisea characterization is a prerequisite for species differentiation and understanding of the pathosystem, evolution and diversity of species. The aim of this study is to determine the morphological variation, pathogen virulence and molecular diversity of P. grisea isolates. Five isolates from infected heads of finger millet were collected from Bomet, Nakuru, Baringo, Busia and Machakos counties in 2019. The samples were cultured in the lab for both characterization and spore suspension preparation. Data on morphological characterization included colony diameter, color and shape of conidia. Pathogenicity test was done in the greenhouse in a randomized complete block design using KNE 741, a susceptible genotype and disease data scored. Molecular characterization involved the use of seven SSR markers. Data analyses included use of softwares such as AUDPC, Power Maker, GeneAlex and Darwin. Results showed that P. grisea isolates had different growth pattern with respect to color, colony diameter and conidia shape. Pathogenicity test revealed that all sites had significant different (P<0.01) virulence on the test genotype. Neck blast, scored at physiological maturity was prominent in Koibatek and Bomet strains while leaf blast was severe in Bomet and Alupe strains. Molecular analysis showed that ENA ranged from 1.30 (MGM 437) -1.99 (Pyrm 61-62) with an average of 1.71. PIC varied between 0.20-0.37 for primers MGM 437 and Pyrm 61-62, respectively. Factorial and phylogenetic analysis revealed that P. grisea isolates were diverse with no geographical grouping. AMOVA indicated diversity occurred within populations (87%) as opposed to among populations (13%). The high P. grisea variability found in the study is a clear indication of the high sexual recombination among strains collected in major growing areas of Kenya.   Key words: Diversity, morphology, pathogenecity, Pyricularia grisea.

Young Women's and Men's Opportunity Spaces in Dairy Intensification in Kenya*

AbstractKenya has a high youth population coupled with high rates of unemployment. Development policies, including the National Youth Policy, emphasize the potential of agriculture as a source of youth employment. Kenya's dairy subsector is relatively well developed and continuing to commercialize. We analyse young women and men's current and emerging roles in dairy intensification and develop a conceptual framework that draws on opportunity space, intersectionality and agency. We collected qualitative data in Nakuru and Kiambu counties, in rural and peri‐urban locations. Based on 20 interviews, 18 focus group discussions, and a validation workshop, we describe social relations and the intersection of social factors that influence young women and men's changing roles and opportunities. We find that youth are embedded within social relations that reflect how age, ethnicity and gender intersect and interact with location to create differential access to agricultural resources and roles and practices in dairy value chains. While our data show that norms and practices of social exclusion may be reinforced through generations, we also find examples that demonstrate young women and men's capacity as agents of change in their communities. Our research contributes to understanding young women and men's diverse experiences in dairy and potential in agriculture.

Socio-Economic Factors and Utilization of Formal Financial Services among smallholder Farmers in Kenya.

The main aim of this research was to establish the effect of socio-economic factors on utilization of formal financial services among smallholder farmers in Kenya. Farmers in low-income counties encounter a number of challenges among them limited access to finance. Financing agriculture, therefore, becomes a critical service to enable the full realization of the sector’s potential. In Kenya, the advent of innovative banking models through commercial banks such as Equity bank have seen a higher proportion of the rural population who were previously unreached being reached by financial services. That said, the subscription to formal financial services by small holder farmers is still low and many of them either shy away from formal financial institutions or are simply ineligible for the services due to lack of a banking profile with the institutions. Cross-sectional survey research design was adopted. The target population for this study were smallholder farmers from Nakuru, Busia and Kirinyaga Counties in Kenya. The study sample was determined using simple random sampling. The sample size was 560 smallholder farmers. The questionnaire and secondary information were the key instruments for data collection. Quantitative data was analysed using multiple linear regression equations with the aid of SPSS software. The study established that the socio-economic factors significantly affected utilization of formal financial services by the smallholder farmers in the country. Policy Makers should therefore, encourage small holder farmers by way of incentives to disclose their annual income so as to improve their chances of accessing formal financial services that can expand their enterprises.

Detection and Quantification of Chlorpyrifos in Soil, Milk, Dip Wash, Spray Race Residues Using High Performance Liquid Chromatography in Selected Dairy Farms in Kenya

Organophosphate acaricides are well known for their extensive use in livestock for the management of Ticks and Tick borne diseases. However, the intensive use of Chlorpyrifos causes environmental pollution due to their residues accumulation. The study was aimed at detection and quantification of Chlorpyrifos in soil, dip wash, spray race residues, milk and milk products from Kilifi, Nakuru and Kajiado Counties. A baseline survey was conducted through a cross-sectional study using questionnaire, formal interview and personal observation to collect data and information on the use and type of acaricides. Thereafter soil, dip wash, spray race residues, milk and milk products from the farmers using acaricides containing Chlorpyrifos as the active compound were collected, analyzed and quantified for the presence of Chlorpyrifos using HPLC. Data obtained was stored in excel spread sheets coded and analyzed using Statistical Package for social Scientists (SPSS). Chemicals used for killing ticks included TRIATIX (12), DUODIP (11), and STELADONE (7) among others with majority of the farmers spraying once a week. Out of 11 samples collected from spray race and dip wash, 7 samples were positive for Chlorpyrifos. Nine (9) samples from the analyzed 27 samples of milk and milk products were Chlorpyrifos positive. Chlorpyrifos was also detected in 6 samples out of the 28 soil samples whereas 5 water samples from the 25 collected sample were positive of chlorpyrifos. Chlorpyrifos was not detected in milk and milk product from Kajiado County. However, the concentration of Chlorpyrifos ranged between 1.000±0.242 mgL^-1 and 2.854±0.149 mgL^-1 in Nakuru County and between 1.930±0.106 mgL^-1 and 2.017±0.049 mgL^-1 in Kilifi County. The positive soil samples were from Nakuru County with concentration ranges between 0.915±0.048 mgL^-1 to 8.556±0.549 mgL^-1. The Nakuru water samples had chlorpyrifos concentration ranging between 0.888±0.180 mgL^-1 to 1.870±0.0243 mgL^-1. The dip wash and spray race samples had a Chlorpyrifos ranges of 0.918±0.217 mgL^-1 (Kajiado County) and 3.282±0.140 mgL^-1 (Nakuru County). The study concludes that there is accumulation of Chlorpyrifos in soil, water, dip wash and spray race and milk and milk products beyond the acceptable limit set at 0 to 0.01 mg/kg body weight by WHO. The concentration of Chlorpyrifos in Nakuru County were found to be higher cozampared to Kilifi and Kajiado County. Surveillance, monitoring and regulation on the use of Chlorpyrifos in manufacturing acaricides is highly recommended.

Presence of Newcastle Disease Virus in Vaccinated Indigenous Chicken in Selected Regions in Kenya —A Cross-Sectional Study

Vaccination of flocks against Newcastle disease virus (NDV) outbreaks is the main approach for controlling the spread of Newcastle disease (ND). Nevertheless, NDV outbreaks have been reported in vaccinated chickens. In this study, we determined the prevalence of NDV among vaccinated indigenous chickens (ICs) and examined the relationship of the disease with the weather (temperature, rainfall, humidity, and wind speed) at the time of sample collection, production system, and the presence of other species. The genetic diversity of the NDV matrix and fusion genes was also inferred. A total of 1,210 swabs were collected between 2017 and 2018 from ICs that were vaccinated or unvaccinated against NDV in free-range and semi-free-range production systems. We collected 650 swabs each from the oropharynx and cloaca of ICs in 68 households within the Bomet, Baringo, Kilifi, Nakuru, Kakamega, and Machakos counties in Kenya. NDV matrix genes were detected using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, and amplicons of matrix and fusion genes were sequenced using a capillary sequencer from the pooled samples. Among the vaccinated ICs, the prevalence of NDV was 78.5% (p=0.045). There were significant relationships between the presence of NDV and vaccination history of the ICs (p=0.034), the type of production system for ICs (p=0.004) and the months of sample collection (p < 0.0001). However, no significant relationship was found between the presence of NDV and the interaction between ICs and other birds. The presence of matrix and fusion genes in samples from vaccinated flocks indicated the presence of both virulent and low-virulence strains of NDV. These findings highlight the significant presence of NDV among vaccinated ICs and suggest the possibility of inadequate vaccination and viral shedding post-vaccination as the drivers of infections.

Spatial-temporal Modelling of Oesophageal and Lung Cancers in Kenya’s Counties

Oesophageal cancer is the cancer that forms in tissues lining the oesophagus (the muscular tube through which food passes from the throat to the stomach) while Lung cancer is the cancer that forms in tissues of the lung, usually in the cells lining air passages. In this study, Data collected by the Nairobi Cancer Registry (NCR) was used to produce spatial-temporal distribution of oesophageal cancer cases for counties in Kenya. The study revealed, counties where data was available Bomet had highest relative risk of oesophageal cancer, followed by Meru, Nyeri, Embu, Nakuru, Kakamega Nairobi, Mombasa, Kiambu and Machakos counties respectively. The study revealed that smoking and alcohol use were significant risk factors of oesophageal cancer in Kenya. Generation of spatio-temporal maps and identification of the risk factors from various counties with notified oesophageal cancer cases is a major milestone since previous studies focused on specific regions. The multiplicative effect of smoking was observed to be 1.012, indicating that oesophageal cancer is 1.2% higher to those who smoke compared to non-smokers. The multiplicative effect of alcohol use was observed to be 1.0346, indicating that oesophageal cancer was 3.5% higher to alcohol users as compared to non-alcohol users. The study findings revealed that, the multiplicative effect of smoking was 1.4021, indicating that lung cancer was 40.21% higher to smokers as compared to non-smokers from the available data. The multiplicative effect of alcohol use was 1.3689 indicating that the risk of lung cancer was 36.89% higher to alcohol users compared to non-alcohol users. Clearly, counties where the data was not available the relative risks were relatively low, therefore even though the data was not available in these counties application of spatial-temporal accounting for covariates revealed that there is risk of oesophageal and lung cancer in the counties. To enhance research on oesophageal, lung and other types of cancer in Kenya the National Cancer Registry in collaboration with Counties health departments should work very closely to enhance cancer data collection to facilitate research and to inform the appropriate measures to be implemented to mitigate the increase of cancer cases.

Demographic Factors Influencing the Adoption of Mobile Phones in the Utilization of Formal Financial Services by Smallholder Farmers in Kenya

The study aimed at assessing the demographic factors influencing adoption of mobile phones in the utilization of formal financial services by smallholder farmers in Kenya. Financial access household survey showed that 80 percent of Kenyan adults own a formal bank account. Whilst significant advances have been made in financial technology products, their penetration and usage among smallholder farmers in utilizing financial services and particularly the demographic factors influencing them remains unestablished. Research into more innovative, intermediated solutions, effective participation and inclusion of appropriate community-based groups in mobile financial services is, therefore, necessary. The target population for this study were smallholder farmers from Nakuru, Busia and Kirinyaga Counties in Kenya. Simple random sampling and Convenience sampling techniques were used to select 496 smallholder farmers as respondents for the study. Data was collected using copies of a researcher developed questionnaire and data collection sheet. Quantitative data was analysed using multiple linear regression analysis with the aid of SPSS software. The findings revealed that demographic factors were important in predicting mobile phone utilization for formal financial services among smallholder farmers in Kenya. Therefore, the study recommends that mobile phone mobile service providers should collaborate with financial service providers to enable the farmers upgrade their phones to access more financial services platforms.

Genetic, morphological and acoustic differentiation of African trident bats (Rhinonycteridae:Triaenops)

AbstractRhinonycteridae (trident bats) are a small Palaeotropical family of insectivorous bats allied to Hipposideridae. Their taxonomy has been in a state of flux. Here, we use mitochondrial and nuclear sequences to evaluate species relationships, confirming the monophyly of both Triaenops and Paratriaenops. Although most Triaenops afer specimens are recovered as a group, mitochondrial analyses strongly support some Kenyan individuals as members of Triaenops persicus. Analyses of four nuclear introns (ACOX2, COPS7A, RODGI and STAT5A) strongly support the mitochondrial topology. Morphometric analysis of the skull, external morphology and echolocation calls confirm that the Triaenops from the Rift Valley in Kenya (Nakuru, Baringo and Pokot counties) are distinct from typical T. afer in coastal (Kilifi and Kwale counties) or interior (Laikipia and Makueni counties) colonies. We interpret these analyses to indicate that two species of Triaenops occur in East Africa: T. afer in coastal regions along the Indian Ocean and in the highlands of central Kenya and Ethiopia, and T. persicus in the Rift Valley of Kenya. Although they appear widely disjunct from Middle Eastern populations, Kenyan T. persicus might be more widely distributed in the Rift Valley; they are somewhat differentiated from Middle Eastern populations in terms of both cranial morphology and vocalizations.

Nutrient content of on-farm formulated NIle tilapia (Oreochromis Niloticus) feeds: implications for the aquaculture industry in Kenya

Due to the high costs and the unavailability of good quality fish feeds in Kenya, farmers have opted to use cheaper, locally available on-farm formulated feeds. In spite of this, farmers continue to incur losses probably due to poor nutritive quality of these on-farm feeds. Furthermore, literature on the proximate composition and appropriateness of on farm formulated feeds for raising farmed fish in Kenya is scanty. Motivated by these reasons, this study sought to investigate the proximate composition of on-farm formulated Nile tilapia feeds and selected commercial fish feeds used in Bomet, Kericho and Nakuru Counties of the Rift Valley Region of Kenya and compared the proximate composition with the official nutrient composition of fish feeds. The method of feed formulation used was also investigated using semi-structured questionnaires. The study also estimated the weight of fish harvested at the end of a production cycle. The results revealed a significant difference between the sampled feeds’ moisture, crude protein and mineral contents and the legislated nutrient levels of the commercial feeds commonly used in the counties. There was also a significant difference between the crude protein content of feeds in the three counties (P < 0.05). More than 50% of respondent farmers in the three counties used Pearson Square Method for fish feed formulation, while the rest used the trial and error method. The mean weight of fish during harvest was 311.5±155.8 g with fish from Kericho County weighing significantly lower than those from Nakuru and Bomet Counties (P < 0.05). Most of the on-farm formulated feeds from the three counties do not meet the recommended nutrient requirements for raising Nile Tilapia. This may be contributing to the observed low weights of the fish harvested, the low fish production and the apparent stagnation of the aquaculture sub-sector in Kenya. The study recommends the formulation of good quality fish feeds through the use of proper methods and appropriate ingredients. This could be achieved through monthly farmers’ trainings on best aquaculture practices. Key words: On- farm formulated feeds, fish feed quality, Nutrients, Nile tilapia, Kenya

Incidences and factors associated with viral suppression or rebound among HIV patients on combination antiretroviral therapy from three counties in Kenya

BackgroundLimited data are available on the incidence and factors associated with viral rebound following viral suppression among HIV-infected individuals taking antiretroviral therapy (ART) in Kenya. Furthermore, the durability of viral suppression among HIV individuals taking ART is unknown. Information on incidence rates and factors associated with HIV viral load rebound and the durability of viral suppression (undetectable HIV copies in plasma) among HIV-infected individuals taking ART, will help improve the long-term management of HIV-infected individuals and explore approaches to long-term HIV remission or complete cure. ObjectivesThe objectives of this study were to investigate the incidence rates of viral rebound following viral suppression, factors associated with viral rebound, and the durability of viral suppression among HIV-infected individuals on ART from Kilifi, Meru, and Nakuru counties in Kenya. MethodsThis was a retrospective study involving 600 HIV-infected individuals taking combination ART (cART) and enrolled in comprehensive care centers (CCCs) at Malindi Sub-county Hospital, Nakuru Level 5 Hospital, and Meru Level 5 Hospital in Kenya. The medical files were inspected and medical history records abstracted for the selected participants. Participant laboratory data including HIV viral loads, types and history of ART, and treatment history of any opportunistic infections were abstracted using an abstraction checklist. Participants were grouped into those who achieved HIV viral suppression, with viral loads lower than the detection limit (LDL) (viral suppression), and those who experienced one or more detectable viral load measurements >40 copies/ml following the initial LDL (viral rebound). Durable viral suppression was defined as all viral load values at LDL over the 2-year period (2017–2019). Univariate and multivariate Poisson regression analyses were performed to assess the rates of viral rebound, as well as to investigate factors associated with it. ResultsOut of 549 HIV-positive patients, 324/549 (59%) achieved HIV viral suppression (Meru 159/194 (82%), Nakuru 21/178 (12%), and Malindi 144/177 (81%)). The overall viral rebound rate was 41%, with site-specific viral rebound of 88.2%, 18.6%, and 18.0% in Nakuru, Malindi, and Meru, respectively. There was an overall rate of first viral rebound of 3.9 (95% confidence interval (CI) 6.9–14.4), 0.7 (95% CI 0.5–1.0), and 0.89 (95% CI 0.64–1.24) per 100 person-months in Nakuru, Malindi, and Meru, respectively. Good ART adherence (p = 0.0002), widow status (p = 0.0062), and World Health Organization (WHO) stage I (p = 0.0002) were associated with viral suppression, while poor ART adherence (p < 0.0001), WHO stage II (p = 0.0024), and duration on ART of 36 months (p = 0.0350) were associated with viral rebound. ConclusionsThe rate of viral suppression in patients on cART in the CCCs fell short of the WHO target. However, the study provides proof of evidence of undetectable viral load levels for more than 2 years, a sign that the United Nation’s 2030 objective of controlling the risk of HIV transmission could be achieved.

Gender Differences among Principals in Corruption Prevention Strategies in Public Secondary Schools in Kenya: The Case of Schools in Nyandarua and Nakuru Counties

Gender Differences among Principals in Corruption Prevention Strategies in Public Secondary Schools in Kenya: The Case of Schools in Nyandarua and Nakuru Counties

The assessment of water quality in river Molo water basin, Kenya

The monitoring of water quality for both domestic and commercial use is absolutely essential for policy formulation that affects both public and environmental health. This study investigates the quality of water of river Molo system which lies in the Kenyan Rift Valley. The river is considered a vital source of water for the residents and industrial activities in Nakuru and Baringo Counties. Six water samples were collected during the dry season of December 2017. Various physicochemical parameters were determined in situ by use of a portable pH meter. These parameters included pH, temperature, electrical conductivity and total dissolved solids (TDS). Anions such as fluorides, sulfates, phosphates, nitrates, chlorides, carbonates and bicarbonates were determined using conventional methods such as titrimetry and (ultra-violet visible) UV–Vis techniques. The cations including sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium were determined using flame photometry. The results showed that the water had pH values ranging from 7.90 to 9.66 units, temperature ranged from 14.02 to 31.5 °C, while electrical conductivity ranged from 181 to 1637 μS/cm, TDS (69–823 mg/L), F (2.76–3.28 mg/L), sulfates (4.97–85.66 mg/L), phosphates (0.13–11.06 mg/L), nitrates (1.73–6.16 mg/L), chlorides (38.5–69.4 mg/L), carbonates (18–148 mg/L), bicarbonates (54–384 mg/L), sodium (19–1800 mg/L), potassium (8.9–121 mg/L), magnesium (4.8–106.8 mg/L) and calcium (13.4–77.4 mg/L). The pH, temperature, fluorides and sodium were above the World Health Organization permissible limits for drinking water in S4 and S5. All the water samples fall under bicarbonate or freshwater zone. The sampling points can be classified into five water types: Na–Mg–Ca–HCO3, Na–HCO3, Na–Ca–Mg–HCO3–CO3, Na and Na–Ca–HCO3–CO3. Chemical indices such as sodium adsorption ratio, magnesium hazard, percent sodium and permeability index are reported. Accordingly, the findings from this work indicate that the river Molo water in general is good for irrigation.