N9 Cells Research Articles

Effects of nitric oxide synthase deficiency on a disintegrin and metalloproteinase domain-containing protein 12 expression in mouse brain samples.

A disintegrin and metalloproteinase domain-containing protein 12 (ADAM12) belongs to the ADAM family of transmembrane proteins. Via proteolysis, cell adhesion, cell-cell fusion, cell-matrix interaction and membrane protein shedding, ADAM proteins are involved in normal brain development, and also in cancer genesis and progression, and in inflammation. Therefore, neurobiological research focusing on this protein is increasing. Nitric oxide (NO), which is endogenously produced by NO synthases (NOS), is associated with glial tumors. However, knock-out of NOS produces only limited antitumor effects. The present study analyzed the expression of ADAM12 in the cortex and hippocampus of C57/BL6 wild-type mice, and endothelial NOS-, neuronal NOS-(nNOS) or inducible NOS (iNOS)-deficient (-/-) mice, at different stages of development. Expression of ADAM12 was quantified using immunoblot analysis of cortical and hippocampal tissue samples from fetal, neonatal (5 days postnatal), adult (12 weeks old) or >1 year old mice. Using reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction, ADAM12 expression was analyzed in cultured N9, OLN93, C6 and PC12 cells, representing the four main cell types in the brain, following NOS inhibition. ADAM12 expression was low in all mouse genotypes and regions of the brain, and in fetal and neonatal mice, an increase in expression was observed with increasing age. The highest levels of expression were observed in the cortex of adult mice, iNOS(-/-) mice of >1 year and wild-type mice, and in the hippocampus of adult and iNOS(-/-) mice of >1 year. By contrast, ADAM12 expression was lowest in adult nNOS(-/-) mice. Inhibition of NOS using N(ω)-Nitro-L-arginine methyl ester hydrochloride, induced ADAM12 mRNA expression in N9 and PC12 cell lines. Inhibition of NOS using L-N(6)-(1-Iminoethyl)lysine dihydrochloride, induced ADAM12 mRNA expression in N9 and C6 cell lines. No change in ADAM12 expression was observed in OLN93 cells following NOS inhibition. ADAM12 expression in mouse hippocampus and cortex samples demonstrated considerable variation during development, with a marked increase observed in adult and >1 year old mice, compared with that in fetal and neonatal mice.

Activation of murine microglial N9 cells is attenuated through cannabinoid receptor CB2 signaling

Inhibition of microglial activation is effective in treating various neurological disorders. Activation of microglial cannabinoid CB2 receptor induces anti-inflammatory effects, and the mechanism, however, is still elusive. Microglia could be activated into the classic activated state (M1 state) or the alternative activated state (M2 state), the former is cytotoxic, and the latter is neurotrophic. In this study, we used lipopolysaccharide (LPS) plus interferon-γ (IFNγ) to activate N9 microglia and hypothesized the pretreatment with cannabinoid CB2 receptor agonist AM1241 attenuates microglial activation by shifting microglial M1 to M2 state. We found that pretreatment with 5 μM AM1241 at 1 h before microglia were exposed to LPS plus IFNγ decreased the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and the release of pro-inflammatory factors, increased the expression of arginase 1 (Arg-1) and the release of anti-inflammatory and neurotrophic factors in microglia. However, these effects induced by AM1241 pretreatment were significantly reversed in the presence of 10 μM cannabinoid CB2 receptor antagonist AM630 or 10 μM protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor chelerythrine. These findings indicated that AM1241 pretreatment attenuates microglial activation by shifting M1 to M2 activated state via CB2 receptor, and the AM1241-induced anti-inflammatory effects may be mediated by PKC.

Differential effects of lipopolysaccharide on energy metabolism in murine microglial N9 and cholinergicSN56 neuronal cells

There are significant differences between acetyl-CoA and ATP levels, enzymes of acetyl-CoA metabolism, and toll-like receptor 4 contents in non-activated microglial N9 and non-differentiated cholinergic SN56 neuroblastoma cells. Exposition of N9 cells to lipopolysaccharide caused concentration-dependent several-fold increases of nitrogen oxide synthesis, accompanied by inhibition of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, aconitase, and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex activities, and by nearly proportional depletion of acetyl-CoA, but by relatively smaller losses in ATP content and cell viability (about 5%). On the contrary, SN56 cells appeared to be insensitive to direct exposition to high concentration of lipopolysaccharide. However, exogenous nitric oxide resulted in marked inhibition pyruvate dehydrogenase and aconitase activities, depletion of acetyl-CoA, along with respective loss of SN56 cells viability. These data indicate that these two common neurodegenerative signals may differentially affect energy-acetyl-CoA metabolism in microglial and cholinergic neuronal cell compartments in the brain. Moreover, microglial cells appeared to be more resistant than neuronal cells to acetyl-CoA and ATP depletion evoked by these neurodegenerative conditions. Together, these data indicate that differential susceptibility of microglia and cholinergic neuronal cells to neurotoxic signals may result from differences in densities of toll-like receptors and degree of disequilibrium between acetyl-CoA provision in mitochondria and its utilization for energy production and acetylation reactions in each particular group of cells. There are significant differences between acetyl-CoA and ATP levels and enzymes of acetyl-CoA metabolism in non-activated microglial N9 and non-differentiated cholinergic SN56 neuroblastoma cells. Pathological stimulation of microglial toll-like receptors (TLRs) triggered excessive synthesis of microglia-derived nitric oxide (NO)/NOO radicals that endogenously inhibited pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDHC), aconitase, and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex. However, it caused none or small suppressions of acetyl-CoA and microglial viability, respectively. Microglia-derived NO inhibited same enzymes in cholinergic neuronal cells causing marked viability loss because of acetyl-CoA deficits evoked by its competitive consumption by energy producing and acetylcholine/N-acetyl-l-aspartate (NAA) synthesizing pathways.

Differential pro-inflammatory responses of astrocytes and microglia involve STAT3 activation in response to 1800 MHz radiofrequency fields.

Microglia and astrocytes play important role in maintaining the homeostasis of central nervous system (CNS). Several CNS impacts have been postulated to be associated with radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields exposure. Given the important role of inflammation in neural physiopathologic processes, we investigated the pro-inflammatory responses of microglia and astrocytes and the involved mechanism in response to RF fields. Microglial N9 and astroglial C8-D1A cells were exposed to 1800 MHz RF for different time with or without pretreatment with STAT3 inhibitor. Microglia and astrocytes were activated by RF exposure indicated by up-regulated CD11b and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP). However, RF exposure induced differential pro-inflammatory responses in astrocytes and microglia, characterized by different expression and release profiles of IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, PGE2, nitric oxide (NO), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase 2 (COX2). Moreover, the RF exposure activated STAT3 in microglia but not in astrocytes. Furthermore, the STAT3 inhibitor Stattic ameliorated the RF-induced release of pro-inflammatory cytokines in microglia but not in astrocytes. Our results demonstrated that RF exposure differentially induced pro-inflammatory responses in microglia and astrocytes, which involved differential activation of STAT3 in microglia and astrocytes. Our data provide novel insights into the potential mechanisms of the reported CNS impacts associated with mobile phone use and present STAT3 as a promising target to protect humans against increasing RF exposure.

Abstract 208: Action of Multifaceted Microglia on Blood Pressure Control

Microglia are the resident surveillance cells in the CNS, and are involved in shaping neuronal plasticity. Previous studies show that hypertension is associated with neuroinflammation. Interference of neuroinflammation by targeting microglia can inhibit or attenuate hypertension. To investigate the phenotypic changes of microglia during hypertension, we compared the profiles of microglia dissociated from normotensive and Ang II-induced hypertensive mice by flow cytometry. We found significant increases in the expression of CD89 (76%), CCR7 (52%), IFNγR (150%), MHC II (85%), CCR2 (51%), IL-4R (164%), mannose receptor (61%) and CD36 (60%) in Ang II microglia compared to the controls. To understand whether the microglial activation has a direct effect on blood pressure, we utilized microglia adoptive transfer strategy via intracerebroventricular (ICV) injection and then examined the blood pressure responses. Mouse microglial cell line, N9, was stimulated in groups as follows: 1) medium control, 2) 10 ng/ml LPS, 3)10 ng/ml LPS + 100 μM minocycline. After 6 hr treatment, half a million N9 cells were transferred into mice via ICV injection. Twenty-four hr later, the recipient mice were anesthetized, cannulated and positioned on the stereotaxic frame. The baseline blood pressure and heart rates were similar among groups (82±2 mmHg, 328±12.8 bpm). However, when we injected Ang II (50 ng in 1μl, ICV), there was a significant prolonged response in the recipient mice transferred with LPS-primed microglia compared to the ones receiving naïve controls (LPS 817±170 sec vs. control 475±70 sec; P<0.05 by unpaired T-test). This increase was fully abolished by co-incubation with minocycline, an inhibitor for microglial activation (LPS+minocycline 507±33 sec). There were no differences observed in pressure magnitude to ICV Ang II across the groups (11±2 mmHg). These data suggest that activated microglia alter neuronal plasticity and potentiate the neuronal responses to Ang II challenge. Taken together, microglial cells are activated, manifested by up-regulation of myeloid cell differentiation markers during hypertension, and then participate in the modulation of blood pressure.

MicroRNA expression profile in the third- and fourth-stage larvae of Angiostrongylus cantonensis

The pathogenesis of angiostrongyliasis, resulting from the third-stage and the fourth-stage Angiostrongylus cantonensis larvae invasion of the human central nervous system, remains elusive. MicroRNAs are important regulators of gene expression and involved in many biological processes. The aim of this study was to determine and characterize miRNAs of third (L3) and fourth (L4) larvae of A. cantonensis by Solex deep sequencing. A total of 629 conserved miRNAs (526 and 376 miRNAs in L3 and L4 larvae of A. cantonensis, respectively) and three novel candidate miRNA from L3 and L4 larva of A. cantonensis were identified with bioinformatic analysis. There were 163 miRNAs upregulated and 54 miRNAs downregulated (fold changes ≥5.0) in the L4 of A. cantonensis compared with that of L3 of A. cantonensis. Interestingly, Gene Ontology "biological process" classifications revealed that 26 miRNAs of significantly differential expression are associated with the immune system, which implies that these miRNAs might participate in the pathogenesis of angiostrongyliasis by regulating genes involved in immune response pathways. Furthermore, the differential expression patterns of 26 conserved miRNAs between L3 and L4 of A. cantonensis were verified. The results of real-time PCR and Northern blot showed that the aca-miR-124 and aca-miR-146a-5p have a low level expression in L3 larvae but high level expression in L4 larvae. Transfection of aca-miR-124 mimics alone significantly downregulated the mRNA expression of IL-6 and IL-1β and TNF-a in the N9 cells, compared to the combination transfection of aca-miR-124 mimics and inhibitor (P < 0.05), suggesting that miR-124 of A. cantonensis have an important role in the suppression of microglia activation. In conclusion, the study presents a general picture of the expression of small RNAs in L3 and L4 of A. cantonensis and highlights conserved miRNAs differentially expressed between L3 and L4 larvae. Our data revealed that miRNAs of parasite may mediate important roles in A. cantonensis immune evasion and aca-miR-146a-5p can serve as a potential biomarker to diagnose angiostrongyliasis.

The amelioration of phagocytic ability in microglial cells by curcumin through the inhibition of EMF-induced pro-inflammatory responses

BackgroundInsufficient clearance by microglial cells, prevalent in several neurological conditions and diseases, is intricately intertwined with MFG-E8 expression and inflammatory responses. Electromagnetic field (EMF) exposure can elicit the pro-inflammatory activation and may also trigger an alteration of the clearance function in microglial cells. Curcumin has important roles in the anti-inflammatory and phagocytic process. Here, we evaluated the ability of curcumin to ameliorate the phagocytic ability of EMF-exposed microglial cells (N9 cells) and documented relative pathways.MethodsN9 cells were pretreated with or without recombinant murine MFG-E8 (rmMFG-E8), curcumin and an antibody of toll-like receptor 4 (anti-TLR4), and subsequently treated with EMF or a sham exposure. Their phagocytic ability was evaluated using phosphatidylserine-containing fluorescent bioparticles. The pro-inflammatory activation of microglia was assessed via CD11b immunoreactivity and the production of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and nitric oxide (NO) via the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay or the Griess test. We evaluated the ability of curcumin to ameliorate the phagocytic ability of EMF-exposed N9 cells, including checking the expression of MFG-E8, αvβ3 integrin, TLR4, nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) using Western blotting.ResultsEMF exposure dramatically enhanced the expression of CD11b and depressed the phagocytic ability of N9 cells. rmMFG-E8 could clearly ameliorate the phagocytic ability of N9 cells after EMF exposure. We also found that EMF exposure significantly increased the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β) and the production of NO; however, these increases were efficiently chilled by the addition of curcumin to the culture medium. This reduction led to the amelioration of the phagocytic ability of EMF-exposed N9 cells. Western blot analysis revealed that curcumin and naloxone restored the expression of MFG-E8 but had no effect on TLR4 and cytosolic STAT3. Moreover, curcumin significantly reduced the expression of NF-κB p65 in nuclei and phospho-STAT3 (p-STAT3) in cytosols and nuclei.ConclusionsThis study indicates that curcumin ameliorates the depressed MFG-E8 expression and the attenuated phagocytic ability of EMF-exposed N9 cells, which is attributable to the inhibition of the pro-inflammatory response through the NF-κB and STAT3 pathways.

Pseudoginsenoside-F11 (PF11) exerts anti-neuroinflammatory effects on LPS-activated microglial cells by inhibiting TLR4-mediated TAK1/IKK/NF-κB, MAPKs and Akt signaling pathways

Pseudoginsenoside-F11 (PF11), an ocotillol-type ginsenoside, has been shown to possess significant neuroprotective activity. Since microglia-mediated inflammation is critical for induction of neurodegeneration, this study was designed to investigate the effect of PF11 on activated microglia. PF11 significantly suppressed the release of ROS and proinflammatory mediators induced by LPS in a microglial cell line N9 including NO, PGE2, IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α. Moreover, PF11 inhibited interaction and expression of TLR4 and MyD88 in LPS-activated N9 cells, resulting in an inhibition of the TAK1/IKK/NF-κB signaling pathway. PF11 also inhibited the phosphorylation of Akt and MAPKs induced by LPS in N9 cells. Importantly, PF11 significantly alleviated the death of SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells and primary cortical neurons induced by the conditioned-medium from activated microglia. At last, the effect of PF11 on neuroinflammation was confirmed in vivo: PF11 mitigated the microglial activation and proinflammatory factors expression obviously in both cortex and hippocampus in mice injected intrahippocampally with LPS. These findings indicate that PF11 exerts anti-neuroinflammatory effects on LPS-activated microglial cells by inhibiting TLR4-mediated TAK1/IKK/NF-κB, MAPKs and Akt signaling pathways, suggesting its therapeutic implication for neurodegenerative disease associated with neuroinflammation.

LPS-Induced proNGF Synthesis and Release in the N9 and BV2 Microglial Cells: A New Pathway Underling Microglial Toxicity in Neuroinflammation

PurposeWhile aberrant activation of microglial cells was evidently involved in neuroinflammation and neurotoxicity in the neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease, objective of study was to address if activated microglias deliver their effect by releasing pro-neurotrophins.Materials and methodsBy in vitro culture of N9 and BV2 cell lines and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation model, generation and release of proNGF, proBDNF and MMP-9 was studied in the activated microglial cells by immunocytochemistry, western blotting and bioassay methods.ResultsActivation of microglial cells was observed with obvious increasing iba1-immunoreactivity following LPS stimulation in cell culture. Synthesis and up-regulation of proNGF protein significantly occurred in N9 and BV2 cells 12h-48h after LPS exposure, whereas no significant changes of proBDNF and MMP9 were observed in these microglial cell lines with LPS insult. More interestingly, extracellular release or secretion of proNGF molecule was also detected in culture medium of N9 cells after LPS stimulation. Finally, bioassay using MTT, Hoechst/PI and TUNEL staining in SH-SY5Y cells further confirmed that proNGF treatment could result in apoptotic cell death but it did not significantly influence cell viability of SH-SY5Y cells.ConclusionsThis in vitro study revealed LPS-stimulated proNGF synthesis and release in activated N9/BV2 microglial cell lines, also suggesting that proNGF may appeal a new pathway or possible mechanism underlying microglial toxicity in the neuroinflammation and a potential target for therapeutic manipulation of the neurodegenerative diseases.

Study of insulin resistance in cybrid cells harboring diabetes-susceptible and diabetes-protective mitochondrial haplogroups

AimThis study aims to elucidate the independent role of mitochondria in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance (IR). MethodsCybrids derived from 143B osteosarcoma cell line and harboring the same nuclear DNA but different mitochondrial haplogroups were studied. Cybrid B4 (the major diabetes-susceptible haplogroup in Chinese population), cybrid D4 (the major diabetes-resistant haplogroup in Chinese population) and cybrid N9 (the diabetes-resistant haplogroup in Japanese population) were cultured in a medium containing 25mM glucose and stimulated with 0μM, 0.1μM, and 1.0μM insulin. We compared the insulin activation of PI3K–Akt (glucose uptake) and ERK–MAPK (pro-inflammation) signaling pathways, intracellular and mitochondrial oxidative stress (DCF and MitoSOX Red), and their responses to the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC). ResultsUpon insulin treatment, the translocation of cytoplasmic GLUT1/GLUT4 to the cell membrane in cybrid D4 and N9 cells increased significantly, whereas the changes in B4 cells were not or less significant. On the contrary, the ratio of insulin-induced JNK and P38 to Akt phosphorylation was significantly greater in cybrid B4 cells than in cybrid D4 and N9 cells. The levels of DCF and MitoSOX Red, which are indicative of the oxidative stress, were significantly higher in the B4 cells in basal conditions and after insulin treatment. Following treatment with the antioxidant NAC, cybrid B4 cells showed significantly reduced insulin-induced phosphorylation of P38 and increased GLUT1/GLUT4 translocation to the cell membrane, suggesting that NAC may divert insulin signaling from pro-inflammation to glucose uptake. ConclusionsMitochondria play an independent role in the pathogenesis of IR, possibly through altered production of intracellular ROS.

Curcumin Protects Microglia and Primary Rat Cortical Neurons against HIV-1 gp120-Mediated Inflammation and Apoptosis

Curcumin is a molecule found in turmeric root that has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-tumor properties and has been widely used as both an herbal drug and a food additive to treat or prevent neurodegenerative diseases. To explore whether curcumin is able to ameliorate HIV-1-associated neurotoxicity, we treated a murine microglial cell line (N9) and primary rat cortical neurons with curcumin in the presence or absence of neurotoxic HIV-1 gp120 (V3 loop) protein. We found that HIV-1 gp120 profoundly induced N9 cells to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1). HIV-1 gp120 also induced apoptosis of primary rat cortical neurons. Curcumin exerted a powerful inhibitory effect against HIV-1 gp120-induced neuronal damage, reducing the production of ROS, TNF-α and MCP-1 by N9 cells and inhibiting apoptosis of primary rat cortical neurons. Curcumin may exert its biological activities through inhibition of the delayed rectification and transient outward potassium (K+) current, as curcumin effectively reduced HIV-1 gp120-mediated elevation of the delayed rectification and transient outward K+ channel current in neurons. We conclude that HIV-1 gp120 increases ROS, TNF-α and MCP-1 production in microglia, and induces cortical neuron apoptosis by affecting the delayed rectification and transient outward K+ channel current. Curcumin reduces production of ROS and inflammatory mediators in HIV-1-gp120-stimulated microglia, and protects cortical neurons against HIV-1-mediated apoptosis, most likely through inhibition of HIV-1 gp120-induced elevation of the delayed rectification and transient outward K+ current.

Curcumin protects microglia and primary cortical neurons against HIV-mediated inflammation and apoptosis (P6181)

Abstract Curcumin is a substance in turmeric root with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-tumor properties, and has been widely used both as an herbal drug and a food additive to treat or prevent neurodisorders. To explore whether curcumin is able to treat HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND), we treated murine microglial cell line (N9) and primary rat cortical neurons with curcumin in the presence and absence of HIV gp120 (V3 loop) protein. We found that HIV gp120 profoundly induced N9 cells to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1). HIV-1 gp120 also induced apoptosis of primary rat cortical neurons. Curcumin exerted powerful inhibitory effect against gp120-induced neuronal damage, reducing production of ROS, TNF-α and MCP-1 by N9 cells, and inhibiting apoptosis of primary rat cortical neurons. Curcumin may exert its biological activities through inhibition of gp120-mediated rectification and transient outward potassium current, as curcumin effectively reduced gp120-mediated elevation of potassium channel current of neurons. Conclusions: HIV gp120 increases ROS, TNF-α and MCP-1 production in microglia, and induces cortical neuron apoptosis by affecting the voltage-gated potassium channel current. Curcumin protects microglia and cortical neurons against HIV-mediated inflammation and apoptosis, probably through inhibition of gp120-induced elevation of the voltage-gated potassium current.

Proinflammatory responses of neuroglia cells after radiofrequency fields exposure (P5036)

Abstract Worldwide use of mobile phones has provoked intense concern regarding the potential biological effects of radiofrequency (RF) fields on the brain. Given the important roles of inflammation and immunization in neural physiopathologic processes, we investigated the proinflammatory responses of neuroglia cells after RF exposure. In the present study, we exposed cultured mouse microglia cell line (N9) and mouse astrocyte cell line (CRL-2541) to 1800 MHz RF modulated by 217 Hz for 1, 3, 6, 12 and 24 hours with a special absorption rate (SAR) of 2 W/kg and a duration of 5 min on/10 min off. The RF exposure significantly increased the mRNA levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-1beta (IL-1β) in N9 and CRL-2541 cells. Concomitant with this finding, the TNF-α and IL-1β releases were elevated by RF exposure in both neuroglia cell culture mediums. In addition, the RF exposure enhanced the gene and protein expressions of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase 2 (COX 2) in both cell lines. The releases of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and nitric oxide (NO), which are the productions of iNOS and COX 2 respectively, were also increased by the RF exposure in the two cell lines. Our results indicate that exposure to 1800 MHz RF (SAR=2 W/kg) may evoke proinflammatory responses in mouse microglia and astrocyte.

Knockdown of FAM3B triggers cell apoptosis through p53-dependent pathway

FAM3B, also named PANDER, is a cytokine-like protein identified in 2002. Previous studies showed that FAM3B regulates glucose and lipid metabolism through interaction with liver and endocrine pancreas. FAM3B is also expressed by other tissues but its basic function is unclear. In this study, we found that FAM3B was expressed in mouse colon, intestine, liver and lung tissues and multiple types of cell lines, including murine pancreatic β-cell (Min6), microglia (N9) and muscle cell (C2C12); human colon cancer cells (HCT8, HCT116, HT29), hepatocyte (HL-7702), hepatocellular carcinoma cell (SMMC-7721) and lung carcinoma cell (A549). Inhibition of FAM3B expression by RNA interference induced apoptotic cell death of HCT8, HCT116, A549, N9, C2C12 and Min6 cells and decreased cell viability of HL-7702 and murine primary hepatocytes. Further studies with HCT8 cells showed that knockdown of FAM3B increased the protein levels of membrane-bound Fas and Bax, reduced the expression of Bcl-2, promoted the cleavage of caspases-8, -3, -9 and PARP, and the nuclear translocation of cleaved PARP. These results suggest that FAM3B silencing activates both extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways. Mechanistic studies showed that neutralizing antibody against Fas or silencing Fas-associated death domain had no effect on, while caspase inhibitors could significantly reverse FAM3B knockdown induced apoptosis, suggesting Fas and death receptor mediated extrinsic apoptotic pathway is not involved in FAM3B silencing induced apoptosis. Further studies showed that p53 was significantly upregulated after FAM3B knockdown. Silencing p53 could almost completely reverse FAM3B knockdown induced upregulation of Bax, downregulation of Bcl-2, cleavage of caspases-8, -9, -3, and apoptotic cell death, suggesting p53-dependent pathway plays critical roles in FAM3B silencing induced apoptosis. Studies with HCT116 cells confirmed that inhibition of FAM3B expression induced apoptosis through p53-dependent pathway. Furthermore, knockdown of FAM3B reduced the protein level of Mdm2 and promoted p53 phosphorylation. Taken together, our studies demonstrated that silencing FAM3B promoted p53 phosphorylation and induced p53 accumulation by decreasing Mdm2 expression, which resulted in apoptotic cell death.

N9 microglial cells polarized by LPS and IL4 show differential responses to secondary environmental stimuli

Microglia participates in the regulation of many inflammation-related pathological processes in the central nervous system, but how microglial activation is regulated has not been fully understood. Here, by using a microglial cell line, we show that microglia, like other macrophages, are activated by inflammatory stimuli in a polarized manner. The LPS-polarized M1 microglia appeared to be unable to respond to a secondary IL4 stimulation, while IL4-polarized M2 microglia could respond to secondary LPS stimulation. We also show that Notch signaling is involved in microglial polarization. When Notch signaling was blocked, the M1 polarization was suppressed, while the M2 polarization was promoted. Withdraw of the Notch signal inhibitor did not permit M2 N9 cells to re-polarize to M1 upon LPS stimulation, suggesting that the effects of Notch blockade on microglial polarization could be “memorized” by cells. These results suggest complicated mechanisms including epigenetic programs in the regulation of macrophage polarization.

LPS-induced iNOS expression in N9 microglial cells is suppressed by geniposide via ERK, p38 and nuclear factor-κB signaling pathways

Activated microglia producing reactive nitrogen species, inflammatory factors, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and other neurovirulent factors, can lead to the development of neurodegenerative diseases. Certain compounds can inhibit the activation of microglia. However, the mechanisms remain unclear. In the present study, we investigated the inhibitory effect of geniposide on the production of ROS and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated N9 murine microglial cells through the p38, ERK1/2 and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathways. After the N9 cells were pre-treated with the vehicle or geniposide and exposed to LPS for the time indicated, the MTT conversion test was used to assess cell viability. Suitable concentrations were chosen and adjusted according to the experiments. Extracellular nitric oxide (NO) release was measured by Griess reaction. The formation of ROS and intracellular NO was evaluated by fluorescence imaging. NOS activities were determined using commercially available kits. The morphology of the N9 cells was examined by hematoxylin and eosin staining. The expression of iNOS mRNA was examined by RT-PCR. The protein levels of iNOS, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), ERK1/2 and NF-κB, inhibitory factor-κB-α (IκB-α) were determined by western blot analysis. The results showed that geniposide attenuated the activation of N9 cells and inhibited the overproduction of NO, intracellular ROS and the expression of iNOS induced by LPS in the cells. In addition, geniposide blocked the phosphorylation of p38, ERK1/2 and inhibited the drop-off of IκB induced by LPS in the cells. These data indicate that geniposide has therapeutic potential for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, and that it exerts its effects by inhibiting inflammation.

Effects of cobalt chloride on nitric oxide and cytokines/chemokines production in microglia

The involvement of microglial activation in metal neurotoxicity is becoming increasingly recognized. Some metal ions, such as zinc (II) and manganese (II), have been recently reported as microglial activators to induce the release of inflammatory mediators including cytokines, chemokines and nitric oxide (NO) which are involved in the pathogenesis of neurological diseases. Cobalt is essential for human life. However, excessive cobalt is cytotoxic and neurotoxic. In the present study, we determined cobalt-induced production of NO and cytokines/chemokines in N9 cells, a murine microglial cell line. High levels of cobalt significantly up-regulated iNOS mRNA and protein expression, which resulted in the release of NO. Cobalt induced the production of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in a concentration- and time-dependent manner in both N9 cells and primary mouse microglia and increased lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-induced cytokine production. Further study showed that cobalt induced cytokine production by a mechanism involving both nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways. The involvement of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in microglial activation was also confirmed. These findings suggested that cobalt neurotoxicity should be attributed not only directly to neuronal damage but also indirectly to microglial activation which might potentiate neuronal injury via elevation of proinflammatory mediator levels.

Puerarin suppresses production of nitric oxide and inducible nitric oxide synthase in lipopolysaccharide-induced N9 microglial cells through regulating MAPK phosphorylation, O-GlcNAcylation and NF-κB translocation

Microglial cells play a critical role in mediating central nervous system inflammatory processes. Activated microglial cells induced by proinflammatory factor, such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS), release many kinds of neurotoxic cytokines including reactive oxygen species (ROS) which contributes to the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. Puerarin, extracted from kudzu root, possesses the characteristic of neuroprotection, antioxidation and anticancer. In the present study, we observed that LPS induced over-production of nitric oxide (NO) and increased the level of intracellular ROS in N9 microglial cells, but it was inhibited by puerarin. Furthermore, treatment with puerarin on N9 cells suppressed the over-expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) induced by LPS which is implicated in intracellular O-linked β-N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAc) level, phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) signaling pathway. We also observed that the enhanced phosphorylation of p38, JNK and ERK1/2 in N9 cells induced by LPS were inhibited by puerarin, otherwise the down-regulation of O-GlcNAcylation level of protein in N9 cell induced by LPS was up-regulated by pretreatment with puerarin. These results indicate that puerarin effectively inhibits microglia activation induced by LPS through inhibiting expression of iNOS, production of NO and ROS which was mediated via regulating O-GlcNAcylation, phosphorylation of MAPK and NF-κB translocation.

Inhibition of TLR Ligand- and Interferon Gamma-Induced Murine Microglial Activation by Panax Notoginseng

Among the many products which influence microglial activation and resulting neuroinflammation, herbal medicine has recently drawn much attention due to its immunomodulatory and neuroprotective activities. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the effects of an extract of Panax notoginseng (NotoG™) on TLR ligand- and IFNγ-induced activation in N9 and EOC20 microglial cells lines. NotoG suppressed microglial activation as measured by reduced expression of accessory molecules (CD40 and CD86), decreased production of inflammatory mediators (IL-6 and TNFα), and diminished release of antibacterial products (nitric oxide). Furthermore, this immunosuppressive activity was neither dependent on the glucocorticoid receptor, nor the result of a single ginsenosides (Rb1, Rg1, or Re), which are the major active constituents of the whole extract. NotoG and select ginsenosides may therefore be of therapeutic benefit in treating or preventing neurodegenerative diseases such as multiple sclerosis and parkinson's disease.

Neuropeptide Y inhibits interleukin‐1 beta‐induced microglia motility

Increasing evidences suggest that neuropeptide Y (NPY) may act as a key modulator of the cross-talk between the brain and the immune system in health and disease. In the present study, we dissected the possible inhibitory role of NPY upon inflammation-associated microglial cell motility. NPY, through activation of Y(1) receptors, was found to inhibit lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced microglia (N9 cell line) motility. Moreover, stimulation of microglia with LPS was inhibited by IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra), suggesting the involvement of endogenous interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) in this process. Direct stimulation with IL-1β promoted downstream p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase mobilization and increased microglia motility. Moreover, consistently, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibition decreased the extent of actin filament reorganization occurring during plasma membrane ruffling and p38 phosphorylation was inhibited by NPY, involving Y(1) receptors. Significantly, the key inhibitory role of NPY on LPS-induced motility of CD11b-positive cells was further confirmed in mouse brain cortex explants. In summary, we revealed a novel functional role for NPY in the regulation of microglial function that may have important implications in the modulation of CNS injuries/diseases where microglia migration/motility might play a role.