Mycotoxins In Feed Research Articles

Mycotoxin Determination in Animal Feed: An LC-FLD Method for Simultaneous Quantification of Aflatoxins, Ochratoxins and Zearelanone in This Matrix.

Mycotoxins are toxic compounds for humans and animals that are produced by fungi. Mycotoxin contamination in feed is a global safety concern and effective control of these compounds in this matrix is needed. This study proposes a simple, cost-effective analytical method based on liquid chromatography coupled with a fluorescence detector, which is suitable for the routine monitoring of some of the most important mycotoxins in feed: aflatoxins (G2, G1, B2, and B1), zearalenone, and ochratoxins A and B. Mycotoxin extraction, chromatographic separation and quantification are carried out simultaneously for all mycotoxins. The extraction procedure is performed using acetonitrile, water and orthophosphoric acid (80:19:1). Purification of the extract is carried out using an OASIS PRIME HLB solid-phase extraction cartridge followed by a dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction procedure. Aflatoxins G1 and B1 are derivatized post-column (photochemical reactor at 254 nm) to increase their signal. The method has been validated in feed for pigs, cows, sheep, and poultry with very satisfactory results. The detection limits are 2 μg/kg for aflatoxins B1 and G1, 0.64 μg/kg for aflatoxins B2 and G2, 42 μg/kg for zearalenone, and 5 μg/kg for ochratoxins A and B. These values are low enough to allow for monitoring of these mycotoxins in feed. Global recovery values were between 73.6% and 88.0% for all toxins with a relative standard deviation (RSD) % < 7%. This methodology will facilitate laboratory control and analysis of mycotoxins in feed.

Effects of Ochratoxin A exposure on DNA damage in porcine granulosa cells in vitro

Ochratoxin A (OTA), a feed mycotoxin, tends to impair the reproductive performance of animals. Our previous studies have demonstrated that OTA exposure inhibits porcine ovarian granulosa cell (GC) proliferation and induces their apoptosis, but the underlying toxic mechanism is still uncertain. In this study, we explored the OTA exposure on porcine GCs in vitro and found that OTA exposure inhibited the proliferation of porcine GCs and arrested cell cycle of GCs in the G2/M phase. The results based on RNA-Seq revealed that 20 μM and 40 μM OTA exposure increase DNA damage of porcine GCs in vitro. The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of 40 μM OTA exposure were enriched in the pathways of mismatch repair, nucleotide excision repair and homologous recombination in DNA replication compared with control group and 20 μM OTA exposure group. Meanwhile, OTA exposure increased the expression levels of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) gene γ-H2AX, and DNA repair related genes, such as BRCA1, XRCC1, PARP1, and RAD51. Above all, our research revealed that OTA might exert deleterious effects on porcine ovarian GCs, influencing DNA repair-related biological processes and causing DNA damage response.

Presence of Mycotoxins in Feed and Dairy Products of Cattle in Paraná, Brazil

Milk contamination by mycotoxins is considered a public health problem. Therefore, the objective of this study was to identify these contaminants in concentrates and in the milk from 31 high-producing herds. Only two of the 55 concentrate samples analyzed showed the presence of aflatoxin G1 (AFG1, 3.2 and 3.6 μg·kg-1). AFM1 was detected in 93.5% of the 62 milk samples analyzed with a range from 0.045 to 0.442 μg·L-1. All of the AFM1 concentrations were below the maximum limit tolerated (0.5 μg·kg-1) by the Brazilian Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária (ANVISA). There was no difference in AFM1 contamination levels for both sampling periods (summer and winter). In conclusion, the AFM1 contamination in animal feed and, consequently, in milk is within the limits tolerated by ANVISA for Brazil (≤ 0.5 μg·kg-1). Furthermore, no season effect on AFM1 levels was found.

Occurrence of on-farm risk factors and health effects of mycotoxins in dairy farms in Jordan.

The aim of this study was to determine the occurrence of on-farm risk factors and health effects associated with contamination of dairy feeds with aflatoxins (AFs), zearalenone (ZEN), trichothecenes (T-2), deoxynivalenol (DON), and fumonisins (FB) in Jordan. A pre-tested and validated questionnaire was used to determine on-farm practices and health effects associated with high levels of mycotoxins. A total of 88 feed samples were collected from the 37 farms participating in the study and analyzed using commercially available ELISA kits. The mean total AF concentration exceeded the European Union (EU) limit in alfalfa (4%) and total mixed ration (TMR) (3%) samples. Similarly, levels exceeding EU limits were observed for T-2 in alfalfa (29%), TMR (30%), and corn silage (4%). The average concentrations of ZEN and FB were 300ppb and 11,638ppb, respectively, which were below the EU maximum limits in all feed samples examined. Intensive management system (OR = 7.70), imported feed (OR = 3.40), feed storage on the farm for more than 1-month duration (OR = 7.90), and not using antitoxins (OR = 2.30) were significantly (P < 0.05) associated with high levels of mycotoxins in feed samples. A significant correlation (P < 0.05) was evident between the presence of mycotoxins in dairy feed and feed refusal (R = 0.70), low milk production (R = 0.50), diarrhea problems (R = 0.60), infertility (R = 0.50), and repeated breeder problems (R = 0.80). Results show that mycotoxin contamination in dairy feeds is a problem in Jordan, and appropriate measures need to be undertaken to reduce risks to human and animal health and improve production.

BIOCHAR AS A FEED ADDITIVE FOR IMPROVING THE PERFORMANCE OF FARM ANIMALS

Biochar, also known as biomass-derived char or charcoal is a dark/black carbonaceous material generated from the pyrolysis process under temperature averagely 700 0C and low oxygen levels. Depending on the intended objectives and conditions of the pyrolysis, the biochar, syngas and bio-oils are the three primary products generated. The quality of biochar is a function of its primary biomass source, residence time and temperature during pyrolysis which in turn results in variations of its physicochemical characteristics such as porosity, carbon content, elemental composition, surface area, retention capacity, and overall applications. The physical and chemical activation techniques to produce the activated charcoal is often done to improve the effectiveness of these carbonaceous materials. The biochar has broadly been used globally in agro-environmental management including in livestock production. Its inclusion at 1 – 3 % of DM of animal feed rations have been studied to improve health conditions and performance of farm animals such as weight gain, immunity response, feed intake, feed conversion rates, carcass characteristics and overall quality of animal products. The mechanisms associated with the beneficial impacts rely on adsorption ability of these materials in detoxifying the mycotoxins in feed, regulating plant-produced toxins, having a high affinity to pollutants as well as improvement of the beneficial microbial populations in animals’ gastrointestinal tract. However, the current literature indicates there is still a need for more investigation on the effectiveness of biochar in animal production due to either limited knowledge or contrasting findings reported. Also, there are imperative challenges which need to be addressed such as safety standards, specificity, potential contamination, affordability, and level of awareness by farmers who are end-users of biochar and its products.

Sampling for mycotoxins in feed— heterogeneity characterisation

Sampling for mycotoxins in feed— heterogeneity characterisation

The effectiveness of use of enterosorbent Shelltic Es when rearing of young pigs

Mycotoxins have been formed in feed are secondary metabolites of fungi and are quite stable substances that have teratogenic, mutagenic and carcinogenic effects. An effective way to combat mycotoxins in feed is the use of feed additives that adsorb toxins, prevent their absorption in the gastrointestinal tract of the animal and are excreted from the body. The infl uence of coconut enterosorbent Shelltic Es on fattening and meat qualities of young pigs has been studied. It has been found in the process of fattening that the highest feed digestibility was in pigs of the experimental group, in the diet of which enterosorbent has been added. The results of studies of the chemical composition and technological properties of pork have been provided. The positive eff ect of enterosorbent on precocity, absolute average daily gain of live weight and reduction of feed expenditures per 1 kg of gain has been revealed. In pigs from the experimental group the average thickness of the fat was higher and the area of the “muscle eye” was lower compared with animals of the control group, which indicates that higher rates of carcass yield have been obtained due to faster accumulation of fat tissue. The weight of internal organs of pigs indicates the intensity of metabolic processes in the body. In experimental animals the weight of the lungs was 0,1 kg lower, and the liver and heart were higher by 0,13 and 0,01 kg, respectively. Enterosorbent had no effect on the content of vitamins in the liver of pigs of the compared groups. The content of impurities of organochlorine toxicants and toxic elements in the meat and liver of animals of the experimental group was lower than that of control analogues. Therefore, the use of enterosorbent Shelltic Es promotes more active excretion of them from the body.

Evaluation of Collagen and Elastin Content in Skin of Multiparous Minks Receiving Feed Contaminated with Deoxynivalenol (DON, Vomitoxin) with or without Bentonite Supplementation.

Simple SummaryThe presence of mycotoxins in products intended for consumption is harmful to the health of both people and animals. One of the most abundant mycotoxins in mink’s feed, often contaminating cereal grains, is a mycotoxin produced by the fungi Fusarium spp. deoxynivalenol (DON). The aim of the study was to investigate whether and how the long-term supply of this mycotoxin in feed influences the skin of adult female minks. An additional objective was to assess the effects of the bentonite additive to feed contaminated by DON, which has the ability to reduce the impact of mycotoxins. The scrapes of the skin were collected from animals after euthanasia and before pelting. After preparing histological slides, samples were examined microscopically. The thickness of the epidermis and dermis was investigated and the presence of elastin and collagen. These parameters determine the quality of the fur skins and economic aspect of this animal husbandry. The results showed that DON causes a decrease in the presence of total collagen and absence of immature collagen, thus reducing the elasticity and flexibility of the skin. The addition the bentonite to feed stimulates the production of collagen, restoring the proper relationship between the tested parameters in mink’s skin.Deoxynivalenol (DON, vomitoxin) is considered one of the most dangerous mycotoxins contaminating cereal products for food and feed. One of the protective methods against the adverse effect of DON on mink health is to use a component such as bentonite as a feed supplement to allow toxins absorption. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of DON, administered alone or with bentonite, on the histological structure of the skin and the content of collagen and elastin. A multiparous minks from control group (not exposed to DON) and a study groups receiving fed with DON-containing wheat for seven months: I: at a concentration of 1.1 mg/kg of feed, II: at a concentration of 3.7 mg/kg, III: DON at a concentration of 3.7 mg/kg and bentonite at a concentration of 0.5 kg/1000 kg of feed (0.05%) and IV: DON at a concentration of 3.7 mg/kg and bentonite at a concentration 2 kg/1000 kg (0.2%). After performing euthanasia and before pelting, skin samples of 2 cm in diameter were drawn from the multiparous minks from the lateral surface of the right anterior limb. Our obtained results clearly indicate that DON administered for a period of seven months at a dose of 1.1 mg/kg significantly changes the thickness of skin of a multiparous mink. It causes an increase in the percentage of elastin from 5.9% to 9.4% and a decrease in immature collagen, which results in a change in the collagen/elastin ratio from 10/1 to 5/1. A dose of 3.7 mg/kg DON in feed without or with 0.05% bentonite causes the absence of immature collagen in the dermis, but the addition of 0.2% bentonite in the feed reveals the presence of immature collagen and increase the percentage of the elastin.

Use of Competitive Filamentous Fungi as an Alternative Approach for Mycotoxin Risk Reduction in Staple Cereals: State of Art and Future Perspectives.

Among plant fungal diseases, those affecting cereals represent a huge problem in terms of food security and safety. Cereals, such as maize and wheat, are very often targets of mycotoxigenic fungi. The limited availability of chemical plant protection products and physical methods to control mycotoxigenic fungi and to reduce food and feed mycotoxin contamination fosters alternative approaches, such as the use of beneficial fungi as an active ingredient of biological control products. Competitive interactions, including both exploitation and interference competition, between pathogenic and beneficial fungi, are generally recognized as mechanisms to control plant pathogens populations and to manage plant diseases. In the present review, two examples concerning the use of competitive beneficial filamentous fungi for the management of cereal diseases are discussed. The authors retrace the history of the well-established use of non-aflatoxigenic isolates of Aspergillus flavus to prevent aflatoxin contamination in maize and give an overview of the potential use of competitive beneficial filamentous fungi to manage Fusarium Head Blight on wheat and mitigate fusaria toxin contamination. Although important steps have been made towards the development of microorganisms as active ingredients of plant protection products, a reasoned revision of the registration rules is needed to significantly reduce the chemical based plant protection products in agriculture.

Monitoring of Mycotoxins in Feed for Dairy Cows and Swine from Muntenia Region, Romania

Mycotoxins have a strong negative impact on crops, animal health and human health. These secondary metabolites are toxic can cause major economic losses and illnesses (Zain, 2011). This study aimed to evaluate the presence of the most prevalent mycotoxins, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN), in feed intended for dairy cows and swine from farms located in the Region of Muntenia (Călăraşi, Giurgiu and Teleorman), Romania. 136 samples of fodder and forage intended for cattle and 37 samples for pigs were collected during 2017 - 2018. Some of the samples were analyzed within the national surveillance program and some on request. AFB1 has been extracted and purified in an immunoaffinity column specific for AFB1. Detection and quantification of toxic secondary metabolites were performed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and Enzyme-Linked ImmunoSorbent Assay (ELISA). All four mycotoxins were detectable and quantifiable. The level of contamination was generally low. The maximum allowable limits for AFB1, OTA, DON and ZEN were not exceeded. The low level of contamination indicates no potential risks for animal and human health and suggests that the best practices in the management and storage of feed were applied in the studied area.

Identifying Challenges and Risks Associated with the Analysis of Major Mycotoxins in Feed and Botanicals

Abstract Changing weather conditions have heightened the risk of growth of mycotoxigenic molds on crops and various agricultural commodities. Mycotoxins, which are linked to carcinogenic and nephrotoxic effects in animals and humans, have been traditionally analyzed by immunoassays, gas, and LC techniques with spectrophotometric detectors. This review discusses the current techniques and challenges in commercial settings associated with the analysis of mycotoxins in unique matrices such as animal feeds, herbal products, and dietary supplements containing botanicals. Because of the advantages and growing acceptance of LC-tandem MS (MS/MS) over traditional approaches, discussion is mainly based on LC-MS/MS-based approaches. Considering the impact of sample preparation on accuracy of quantitative results, discussion about pros and cons of recently introduced sample preparation techniques is integrated with analytical methods. A section of the review explains the importance and availability of reference materials for mycotoxins. The present discussion provides good insight into the current challenges and developments during mycotoxin analysis of feed and botanicals and addresses the need for researchers in terms of an official MS-based method.

Aluminosilicates and yeast-based mycotoxin binders: Their ameliorated effects on growth, immunity and serum chemistry in broilers fed aflatoxin and ochratoxin

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of commercial toxin binders on growth performance, organ morphology, immunity and serum biochemistry in broilers. Dietary treatments consisted of the negative control (NC): experimental diet with aflatoxin B1 <20 parts per billion (ppb), ochratoxin A (OTA) <5 ppb; control (C) experimental diet without toxin binder; Z1: toxin binder 1 g/kg of zeta plus; Z2: toxin binder 2 g/kg of zeta plus; TX1: toxin binder 1 g/kg of Toxfin Dry; and TX2: toxin binder 2 g/kg of Toxfin Dry). Except for NC, all diets contained 57 ppb aflatoxin B 1 and 23 ppb ochratoxin A. Feed intake was higher in the TX1, TX2, NC, Z2 and Z1 treatments than in the control. Weight gain was higher in Z2, TX2, Z1, TX1 and NC than in C. Feed conversion ratio (FCR) was poor in C. The control had the highest liver weight, though the weights of the spleen, kidneys and hearts of the birds were similar in all treatments. Gizzard weight, thymus weight, and bursa of Fabricius were lowest in C. The weight of the pancreas was similar among treatments. The antibody titres against new castle disease were higher in treatments Z2, Z1, TX2, TX1 and NC than in C. Urea and creatinine concentrations, and aspartate aminotransferase activity in serum were similar among treatments, whereas the serum alanine transaminase activity was higher in C than in Z1, TX1, TX2, Z2 and NC. It was concluded that growth rate, FCR and immunity indices were improved in broilers fed toxin binder. At lower levels of mycotoxin in feed, 1 g/kg of toxin binder (clay based or yeast based) was sufficient to ameliorate the adverse effects of aflatoxin B1 and OTA, whereas at higher levels of mycotoxins, supplementation of toxin binder should be increased. Keywords: alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, carcass characteristics, growth performance, toxin binders, urea, creatinine

Physico-Chemical Properties of Clay Minerals and Their Use as a Health Promoting Feed Additive.

Simple SummaryFeeds contaminated by mycotoxins cause organ damage, immune suppression and health disorders, limiting growth and performance of farm animals. One of the most practical approaches to minimizing the negative effect of these substances in livestock diets is by the use of different feed additives, preventing their absorption from the gastrointestinal tract. Growing interest in particular is applied to mineral additives, such as clays and clay minerals. These materials are not digested but bind toxic metabolites and mycotoxins, moving them through the digestive tract, without detrimental influence on the animal body. Apart from the binding capacity, clay minerals show other activity which could positively affect animal welfare and productivity. However, each type of clay has its own specific binding capacity that can greatly vary according to its origin deposit and treatment. Moreover, clays may bind with not only noxious substances but also some nutrients, causing a nutritional imbalance for animals. Therefore, the aim of the review was to present the available knowledge on the properties and use of clays in feedstuff decontamination as well as to discuss the resulting potential benefits for animal health and safety of human food.The contamination of feeds with microbiological or toxicological agents can affect health, productivity and safety of livestock animals and their products. The treatment of feedstuffs to lower the content of undesired substances before feeding is expensive and labor intensive, therefore an alternative is to reduce their gastrointestinal absorption. Different feed additives are available, however the use of clays and clay minerals are ideal for this purpose due to their high specific surface area, adsorption capacity, low or null toxicity for the animal and low cost. A large number of clays available to producers have different structures that are dependent on their mining source, causing difficulty in proper categorization. For this reason properties of phyllosilicates with 1:1 layers (one sheet of SiO4 tetrahedra joined to one sheet of Al- or Mg-octahedra), 2:1 layers (one sheet of Al- or Mg-octahedra between two sheets of Si-tetrahedra), and 2:1:1 layers (a basic 2:1 structure with an interlayer brucite (with cations Mg2+ or Fe2+) or gibbsite (with cation Al3+) sheet) and tectosilicates are described. The role of clay minerals in animal production shows a reduction in diarrhea, better feed conversion ratio, and improved health of many livestock species due to their specific adsorption potential of many feed mycotoxins. Overall, there is growing interest in the use of clays due to their beneficial characteristics, absence of primary toxicity and success in research to reduce animal disease and improve animal production and safety of animal products.

Potential adverse effects on animal health and performance caused by the addition of mineral adsorbents to feeds to reduce mycotoxin exposure

The contamination of feed with mycotoxins is a continuing feed quality and safety issue, leading to significant losses in livestock production and potential human health risks. Consequently, various methods have been developed to reduce the occurrence of mycotoxins in feed; however, feed supplementation with clay minerals or mineral adsorbents is the most prominent approach widely practiced by farmers and the feed industry. Due to a negatively charged and high surface area, pore volume, swelling ability, and high cation exchange capacity, mineral adsorbents including bentonite, zeolite, montmorillonite, and hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate can bind or adsorb mycotoxins to their interlayer spaces, external surface, and edges. Several studies have shown these substances to be partly or fully effective in counteracting toxic effects of mycotoxins in farm animals fed contaminated diets and thus are extensively used in livestock production to reduce the risk of mycotoxin exposure. Nevertheless, a considerable number of studies have indicated that these agents may also cause undesirable effects in farm animals. The current work aims to review published reports regarding adverse effects that may arise in farm animals (with a focus on pig and poultry) and potential interaction with veterinary substances and nutrients in feeds, when mineral adsorbents are utilized as a technological feed additive. Furthermore, results of in vitro toxicity studies of both natural and modified mineral adsorbents on different cell lines are reported. Supplementation of mycotoxin-contaminated feed with mineral adsorbents must be carefully considered by farmers and feed industry.

Evaluation of High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry for the Quantitative Analysis of Mycotoxins in Complex Feed Matrices

The selective and sensitive analysis of mycotoxins in highly complex feed matrices is a great challenge. In this study, the suitability of OrbitrapTM-based high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) for routine mycotoxin analysis in complex feeds was demonstrated by the successful validation of a full MS/data-dependent MS/MS acquisition method for the quantitative determination of eight Fusarium mycotoxins in forage maize and maize silage according to the Commission Decision 2002/657/EC. The required resolving power for accurate mass assignments (<5 ppm) was determined as 35,000 full width at half maximum (FWHM) and 70,000 FWHM for forage maize and maize silage, respectively. The recovery (RA), intra-day precision (RSDr), and inter-day precision (RSDR) of measurements were in the range of 94 to 108%, 2 to 16%, and 2 to 12%, whereas the decision limit (CCα) and the detection capability (CCβ) varied from 11 to 88 µg/kg and 20 to 141 µg/kg, respectively. A set of naturally contaminated forage maize and maize silage samples collected in northern Germany in 2017 was analyzed to confirm the applicability of the HRMS method to real samples. At least four Fusarium mycotoxins were quantified in each sample, highlighting the frequent co-occurrence of mycotoxins in feed.

A review on combined effects of moniliformin and co-occurringFusarium toxins in farm animals

Co-occurrence of mycotoxins in food and feed represents the rule rather than the exception. Information about combinatory toxic effects of co-occurring mycotoxins is scarce, in particular the effects that mixtures of mycotoxins in feed may have on farm animals. This review focusses on studies on the combined effects of moniliformin and co-occurring mycotoxins in feed on farm animals. Moniliformin is a mycotoxin of emerging scientific interest, which may co-occur with many other mycotoxins, especiallyFusarium mycotoxins. Oral exposure to moniliformin reduces feed consumption and body weight gain in poultry, in pigs and catfish, and induces cardiotoxic effects and/or alterations in serum biochemical and haematological parameters. In this review only experiments comparing effects as a result of the exposure to a combination of mycotoxins with effects due to the exposure to single mycotoxins were considered. Identified published studies on combined toxicity have been limited to combinations of moniliformin with either fumonisin B1 or deoxynivalenol, and were performed with poultry, pigs, and catfish. Most of the moniliformin/fumonisin B1 investigations involved poultry and focussed on adverse effects on feed intake, weight gain and immune response, as well as organ lesions. These studies mainly reported an interactive toxicity of moniliformin and fumonisin B1 but did not allow identification of the type of interaction. Likewise, no indication could be given for the interaction detected for both mycotoxins on weight gains of catfish. For the moniliformin/deoxynivalenol combination, only one study with broiler chickens was found relevant. This study concluded additive or less than additive toxicity, using kidney lesions and renal tubular epithelial degeneration as endpoints. While possible interactions between moniliformin and fumonisin B1 or deoxynivalenol were identified, the conclusions are based on limited studies and experimental designs. Further studies on the combined toxicity of moniliformin with other mycotoxins and other animal species would be needed.

Identifying Challenges and Risks Associated with the Analysis of Major Mycotoxins in Feed and Botanicals.

Changing weather conditions have heightened the risk of growth of mycotoxigenic molds on crops and various agricultural commodities. Mycotoxins, which are linked to carcinogenic and nephrotoxic effects in animals and humans, have been traditionally analyzed by immunoassays, gas, and LC techniques with spectrophotometric detectors. This review discusses the current techniques and challenges in commercial settings associated with the analysis of mycotoxins in unique matrices such as animal feeds, herbal products, and dietary supplements containing botanicals. Because of the advantages and growing acceptance of LC-tandem MS (MS/MS) over traditional approaches, discussion is mainly based on LC-MS/MS-based approaches. Considering the impact of sample preparation on accuracy of quantitative results, discussion about pros and cons of recently introduced sample preparation techniques is integrated with analytical methods. A section of the review explains the importance and availability of reference materials for mycotoxins. The present discussion provides good insight into the current challenges and developments during mycotoxin analysis of feed and botanicals and addresses the need for researchers in terms of an official MS-based method.

Prevalence of mycotoxins in feed and feed ingredients between 2015 and 2017 in Taiwan.

Contamination of feed by mycotoxins is a global epidemic that has a sizeable impact on animal health and causes economic losses. Mycotoxins, including aflatoxins (AFs), zearalenone (ZEN), fumonisins (FUMs), deoxynivalenol (DON), and ochratoxin A (OTA), lead to acute and chronic adverse effects in pigs. Animal feed and feed ingredients are commonly contaminated by one or more mycotoxins worldwide; however, the prevalence of mycotoxin contamination in feed and feed ingredients in Taiwan remains unclear. A total of 820 cornmeal and corn-based swine feed (pregnancy and nursery diets) samples provided by feed and animal producers were analyzed using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method between January 2015 and December 2017 to determine the presence of mycotoxins. The results revealed that the most prevalent mycotoxin in Taiwan was DON, with 91.4% of positive samples between 2015 and 2017, followed by ZEN, AFs, and FUMs, with 70.2%, 58.0%, and 50.4% of positive samples, respectively. A similar prevalence of mycotoxins was observed in cornmeal and corn-based swine feed. Furthermore, 7.7% of the analyzed feed samples contained one mycotoxin, and 91.3% contained multiple mycotoxins. DON was the most prevalent mycotoxin in cornmeal and corn-based swine feed in Taiwan. Moreover, a high incidence of contamination by multiple mycotoxins was observed in swine feed. Awareness of mycotoxin presence in feed and development of mycotoxin detoxification strategies are unmet needs.

INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL LEGISLATION TO CONTROL MICTOXINS IN FOOD: REVIEW

Today, the problem of monitoring mycotoxins has become global in connection with climate change, a violation of the ecological balance for the use of intensive technologies for processing crops, through air pollution and the accumulation of products of photochemical reactions (photooxidants), which leads to a decrease in plant resistance to phytopathogens. Every year, the problem of mycotoxicosis is exacerbated, as toxic fungi adapt quickly to new technologies and modern plant protection products. The increase in mycotoxins in foods also relates to the widespread use of nitrogen fertilizers and pesticides. Natural toxins create risks for the health of humans and animals, affect food security and nutrition, reducing people's access to healthy food. The World Health Organization is constantly appealing to national authorities to monitor and ensure that the levels of the most relevant natural toxins in foods are as low as possible and consistent with both national and international requirements. Ukraine's membership in the WTO, an association with the European Union, and the expansion of international trade require solutions to the issues of free movement of goods, safe and healthy food, and, accordingly, an adequate level of protection of life and health of people. One of the most important ways to solve them is to improve and harmonize national food legislation in line with international standards, including on the control of mycotoxins. The purpose of our work was to conduct an analysis of literary sources, international and national legislative acts on the control of mycotoxins in food products throughout the food chain. To prepare the publication, we have used literary sources on the subject of publication, as well as we have conducted a comparative analysis of national and international legislative acts regulating procedures and methods for controlling the residues of mycotoxins in food. An analysis of numerous sources has shown that the issue of monitoring mycotoxins in foods, improving laboratory control and risk-based approach to preventing foodborne mycotoxicosis worries scientists from different countries, including Ukrainian. The analysis of national legislation shows that national standards on maximum levels of pollutants have been revised in Ukraine and a number of standards have been harmonized for methods of monitoring the residues of mycotoxins in feed for productive animals, food products of animal and vegetable origin. Key words: mycotoxins, food chain, food, international law, national legislation, control, safety, risks.

The modern methods of reproduction physiology of horses

The concept of development of horse breeding in Ukraine until 2020 provides for an increase in the number of horses through the intensive use of modern methods of reproduction biotechnology. However, the imperfection of these methods hinders their widespread use in practice. The aim of the work was to draw attention to the most important problems of the physiology of horse reproduction in Ukraine and to show ways to solve them that have already been proposed by domestic and foreign researchers. The development strategy of the physiology of horse reproduction in order to increase its effectiveness should take into account the least studied aspects that were discussed above. The article shows that taking into account the influence of micromycetes, the absolute number of colony forming units of E. coli in semen of stallions; immuno-and cytogenetic features; new methods of sanitary preparation of horses for sperm and insemination; the effect of permissible levels of feed mycotoxins on physiological functions improves the efficiency of equine reproduction physiology methods. However, we first discovered new physiological features of the effect of erythrocyte antigens of blood groups of horses of Ukrainian selection on the indicators of their native sperm. In the presence of ad/bcm and dg/cgm alleles of the blood group D system in stallions, sperm motility is on average less than 5 points; alleles ad/cgm, ad/d, ad/de, ad/dk, bcm/d, bcm/de, bcm/dg, bcm/dk, cegm/cgm, cegm/d, cegm/dg, cegm/dk, cgm/ceg, cgm/cgm, cgm/dg, cgm/dk, de/cgm, de/dk, dg/di, dk/d, dk/de, dk/dk is accompanied by sperm motility from 5 to 7 points; alleles bcm/cgm, dg/dk, de/d, cgm/d, cgm/de sperm motility is observed more than 7 points. The results obtained allowed us to develop for practice ways to increase the efficiency of sperm cryopreservation by immunogenetic parameters. In addition, open physiological correlations can increase the fertility of mares during mating.