Music Educators National Conference Research Articles

The Radical Origins and Mission of the National Black Music Caucus: The First Twenty-Five Years—1972–1997

In 1972, more than two hundred Black music educators convened an impromptu, offsite protest meeting during the 23rd Convention of the Music Educators National Conference in response to the dearth of Black music and musicians represented on the program and the near exclusion of Black musicians on the Jazz Night program. The unprecedented and impactful meeting, held on the campus of Morehouse College on the last day of the Convention, led to the formation of the National Black Music Caucus (NBMC). This article chronicles the birth of the NBMC and its subsequent growth over the next 25 years, focusing on the historical relationship between Black music educators and MENC, the importance of Atlanta to the organization’s founding, the motivation for the initial meeting, goals of the organization, and its key accomplishments. This story is told through the use of primary sources, including conference programs and organizational documents, while centering the voices of those who were instrumental in leading NBMC throughout its first 25 years.

Another Perspective

Respected music professor and pianist Jesse C. McCarroll presents an overview of his multicultural journey, sharing some of his challenges and high points in a fascinating career. His writing offers a look at an important part of the history of Music Educators National Conference and the National Association for Music Education and points the way forward for music educators in a time of religious, ethnic, and cultural conflicts: We need more than tolerance of differences—we need to understand each other, and becoming acquainted with diverse musical cultures offers a step in this direction.

EDITORIAL

Editorial Estelle R. Jorgensen This special issue celebrates the contributions of Bennett Reimer (1932–2013) to the philosophy of music education throughout the world. Probably no other philosopher is so identified with music education thought in the latter part of the twentieth century, as a protagonist for the view of music education as a form of aesthetic education and a precursor to an alternative, David Elliott’s praxial theory of music education. Here, our writers examine the historical and editorial context in which he wrote, his impact on music education practice, the nature of ideas that may constitute his legacy for music education, and his effect on music education internationally. Reimer is best remembered for his notion of music education as a form of aesthetic education articulated in his A Philosophy of Music Education (1970) with successive editions in 1989 and 2003. In formulating his philosophy, he dipped into the current of aesthetic ideas about music education that were circulating at the time. One thinks, for example, of Charles Leonard and Robert House’s case for the need for a robust aesthetic philosophy in music education, articulated in their text, Foundations and Principles of Music Education (1959) and Abraham Schwadron’s argument for the place of aesthetics in a philosophy of music education in his Aesthetics: Dimensions for Music Education (1967) published by the Music Educators National Conference. The role of aesthetics and feeling in music education was subsequently addressed by other writers in the 1970s. For example, Thomas Regelski credited Susanne Langer’s notion of feeling in his Principles and Problems of Music Education (1975) and drawing on Schwadron’s work, discussed aesthetics and feeling in his subsequent essay published in the Music Educators Journal, “Aim for the Inner Life: Teaching Early Teens” (1979). [End Page 113] Reimer’s achievement was to catch the imagination of the time and formulate an influential and evolving philosophy that impacted music education research and practice well beyond the United States. By the time I discovered the first edition of Reimer’s Philosophy, I was in the midst of a critique of music education that came to comprise my dissertation and eventually developed into my book, In Search of Music Education, published much later in 1997. Although I agreed with Reimer’s premise that music education constituted a means and form of aesthetic education, I sought a broader, different, and dialectical aesthetic view. For me, music education logically concerned not only aesthetic considerations but important ontological, axiological, and epistemological matters. Although music education might properly be construed as a form of aesthetic education, it could not be only that. My writing reflected a growing sense in the profession of the importance of socially, culturally, and practically grounded views of music and education that complicated and challenged Reimer’s philosophy. The dramatic cultural and societal changes of the times seemed to call for different approaches to the philosophy of music education than the theory Reimer had constructed. There was also a growing desire for a forum in which different philosophical ideas could be articulated and discussed. Reimer began to amend his views but changes in the second edition of his Philosophy were insufficient to satisfy his critics and matters came to a head at the end of the 1980s. In 1989, Elliott published a book review critical of the second edition of Reimer’s A Philosophy of Music Education in the Philosophy of Music Education Newsletter. In 1990, in a paper entitled, “What Should One Expect from a Philosophy of Music Education?” presented at the Philosopher/Teacher in Music: The Indiana Symposium on Research and Teaching in the Philosophy of Music Education, held July 8–12, in Bloomington, Indiana, Philip Alperson introduced the notion of a praxial approach to aesthetics as one of several philosophical moves that could benefit music education. Alperson’s aesthetic emphasis on the social and cultural constructs of music and the role of practices in the phenomenal world took advantage of new intellectual developments. Rather than suggest the praxial option as the only justifiable philosophical position or regard it as an anti-aesthetic posture, Alperson presented three aesthetic options, of which the praxial view was one, each having advantages and...

Bolsheviks and Big Brother: The Difficult Relationship between MENC and the Michigan School Band and Orchestra Association

During the period of rapid growth in public school music in the United States between 1920 and 1950, music education associations were created in most states to coordinate activities and contests. (1) The Music Educators National Conference (MENC), (2) established in 1907, reached out to these organizations through its band, orchestra, and vocal contest divisions, and most of these state associations affiliated with the national organization; by 1946, MENC affiliates existed in forty-four of the forty-eight states. (3) As a result, the MENC became the umbrella group for music educators in most areas of the country; this was not true in Michigan, however, where barriers were erected between a significant portion of music teachers and the MENC, inhibiting unified advocacy and policy efforts. Mary Lynn Rampolla has suggested three reasons for historical research: 1) to understand how the present came to be; 2) to broaden current perspectives; and 3) to help shape the future. (4) Following these suggestions, this article will 1) outline the significant historical events that have defined the relationship between the MENC and the largest music education association in Michigan, the Michigan School Band and Orchestra Association (MSBOA) (5); 2) uncover the effects of that relationship on music education in the state; and 3) deepen our understanding of this complex relationship so that collaboration among the music education associations in Michigan (and in states with similar circumstances and conditions) may increase. Context: The Formation of State Associations in the Midwest The midwestern region of the United States was the geographical center of growth in school instrumental music, especially the states of Ohio, Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, and Michigan. (6) The band contest movement provided a strong impetus for this growth. Although band directors in all these states created associations to organize band contests during the 1920s and 1930s, each association's relationship with the MENC evolved differently. Paul Sanders cited Ohio as having the West in the establishment of school music, as Boston had led the East. By 1850, school music programs had been formed in Cincinnati, Columbus, Massilon, Oberlin, and Zanesville. (7) The Ohio School Band Association was founded in 1924 to help govern state band contests and was expanded in 1929 to include orchestral activities. (8) In 1932, the group changed its name to the Ohio Music Education Association and broadened the scope of its activity. (9) The organization affiliated with the MENC in 1934 and since then has governed most aspects of music education in the state, including scholastic music festivals. (10) Formed in 1920, the Wisconsin School Music Association (WSMA) was the first organization for school bands in the United States, dedicated to expanding the number of bands through contests. (11) By 1930, Wisconsin held the largest instrumental music contests in the nation, and when the National School Band and Orchestra Association was formed in 1933, it borrowed extensively from the WSMA constitution, which had been written four years earlier. (12) While it remains the governing body for most school music activities in Wisconsin, the WSMA works closely on a host of issues and shares a common staff and office complex with the MENC state unit and the Wisconsin Foundation for School Music (a philanthropic enterprise that provides funding for state music events) at the Wisconsin Center for Music Education in Waunakee. (13) The Illinois School Band Association (ISBA) was organized in 1924 immediately after the first state band contest. (14) The ISBA continued to hold the contests until World War II travel restrictions prompted a suspension of the events. Following the war, the Illinois High School Association assumed control of the contests. The ISBA then became an advisory committee to the Illinois Music Educators Association (formed in 1939) and was eventually absorbed by that organization. …

Robert Klotman: A Life of Musical Leadership

When Robert was inducted into the Music Educators National Conference Hall of Fame in 2004, the nominating statement read, Klotman is best known for his extensive work in string pedagogy, his leadership in professional organizations, and his teaching at Indiana (1) By this time, his career had spanned decades, and he had been active across the whole spectrum of music education from K-12 through university levels. Because of his forceful personality, his leadership skills, and his ability to anticipate the impact of new teaching ideologies, significantly influenced how stringed instruments are taught in public schools in this country. Perhaps most importantly, he had the vision to reach out internationally and helped to bring Suzuki violin pedagogy to the United States. Given the impact of Klotman's work on string education, it is appropriate to look beyond the formal trajectory of his career at his childhood and education, the people and ideals that motivated him, and the major life experiences that shaped his career. For music educators it is appropriate to search out, in particular, the distinct issues that were important to and to consider how his advocacy for those issues shaped the path of music education in the United States during the last half of the twentieth century. Robert Howard was born in Cleveland, Ohio, on November 22, 1918. (2) His parents, Louis Harry and Pearl (Warshawksy) Kaplan were immigrants from Tetiev, a small town in the Ukraine located approximately seventy miles southwest of Kiev. (3) In the late 1800s, many Jewish families from that region came to the United States, often settling in the Cleveland area. Louis and Pearl married on December 16, 1917, but divorced when Robert was young. (4) Pearl raised her children on her salary as the owner of a beauty shop. began his musical studies at the age of nine. He remembers his father as being a very musical person who could pick up and play the violin without any instruction. In his family, it was just as natural to excel in music as it was to work hard in academic subjects. (5) Robert sang in the school choir in the third grade. However, when he sang he wanted to hear himself over the other children's voices, so he would sing louder than anyone else. His teacher said to him, I've got a special job for you, and made him the curtain puller. Disappointed, he went home to his mother who stated, Don't cry. You've always liked to play the violin. Thus, attributes the beginning of his violin career to his third-grade choir teacher. (6) His mother could not afford for him to take violin lessons, so she worked out an agreement with a local violinist named Hyman Schandler of the Cleveland Symphony Orchestra. Pearl would style the hair of Schandler's wife in exchange for a weekly lesson for her son. Klotman's mother was supportive of his music lessons, requiring him to practice daily. Later, she said that had she known he would become a professional musician, she would have made him practice three hours per day instead of only one hour. (7) During the years 1932-36, attended Glenville High School in Cleveland Heights, a suburb originally settled by northern European immigrants. After World War I and during the Great Depression, this area became an epicenter of Cleveland's Jewish population. (8) Ralph E. Rush (1903-65) was Klotman's high school orchestra teacher and an early mentor. (9) Rush became the band and orchestra teacher at the school in 1933 and immediately led the orchestra to first division honors at the national orchestra competition in Madison, Wisconsin. (10) says that Rush eventually became a father figure for him. Rush was likely Klotman's first real influence in his career choice and instilled in him the responsibility of belonging to a professional organization and serving the profession. (11) [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] According to Klotman, people are often curious as to why he attended the Methodist school Ohio Northern University. …

Free Improvisation

Improvisation, the third content standard for the National Standards for Music Education (Music Educators National Conference, 1994), has received less attention from music teachers. This article advocates for more improvisation specifically free improvisation in general music classrooms. The nature of free improvisation, and its evolution in the Unites States and Europe is presented, followed by a rationale in incorporating free improvisation in general music classrooms. It is emphasized that free improvisation can be a successful entry point for those teachers who do not have ample time or do not feel comfortable using improvisation activities. Free improvisation has two distinct and valuable features: it can be played by anyone regardless of age and musical capability, and it is the accumulation of musical identities of all the participants involved in making the music. This author asserts that free improvisation is inherently democratic, and by using it teachers can create a space for students to feel more self-assured, and autonomous.

TheJournal of Music Teacher Education

We analyzed each article published in 20 years (1991–2011) of the Journal of Music Teacher Education ( N = 282 articles) for possible changes across 5-year increments. All articles were examined by type of article, research methodologies used, and topics discussed. Nonrefereed articles included Society for Music Teacher Education chair and Journal of Music Teacher Education editor commentaries ( n = 77), and occasional statements by Music Educators National Conference (MENC)/National Association for Music Education (NAfME) officers ( n = 3). Peer-reviewed articles were classified as research articles ( n = 85), interest articles ( n = 99), and book reviews ( n = 18). Results showed a distinct increase in numbers of both quantitative ( n = 51) and qualitative ( n = 34 including historical) research articles over time with most appearing in the fourth quarter. Overall, more interest articles appeared ( n = 99), but the number decreased across each 5-year increment. Numbers of book reviews declined steadily. Analysis of specific topics revealed that curriculum, teaching techniques, and professional development were most frequently discussed but varied by type of article and methodology.

The Chattanooga Symposium on the History of Music Education, June 2–4, 2011

Organization At the Anaheim Music Educators National Conference (MENC) meeting in April 2010, several History Special Research Interest Group (HSRIG) members met informally and convivially to enjoy the professional camaraderie that has developed among HSRIG members over three decades. These members included Patrick Jones, William Lee, Jere Humphreys, Alan Spurgeon, Marie McCarthy, Sondra Howe, Carolyn Livingston, and others. Ideas were floated--half seriously-about planning another history symposium patterned on Keokuk II: The MENC Centennial History Symposium, which had been organized successfully by Jere Humphreys and Alan Spurgeon in 2007. Among the several proposed sites, Chattanooga, Tennesseee, came to be seen as ideal due to its well-developed Tourist acilities, reasonable cost, significant historical sites, and accessibility. William Lee: I knew that Chattanooga would be a good place to meet, but I felt it was not the moment for me or my university, so I demurred. A couple weeks after Anaheim, I thought differently about it. I contacted Jere andAlan and told them I would do it if they would help me based on their Keokuk II work. They agreed to help. If my memory serves me well, my comment was: Just don't let me blow this. Jere Humphreys: As a Tennessean I was well aware of some of the significant advantages of the Chattanooga site. Moreover, Alan Spurgeon and I also knew beyond a shadow of a doubt that Bill Lee would do a stupendous job as conference chair. Alan Spurgeon: I enjoyed the Keokuk conference and felt that it was time to plan another, so I was pleased when we started discussing the topic in Anaheim. When we toyed with the idea of Chattanooga and Bill Lee seemed interested in coordinating it, I knew that this could turn out to be something quite remarkable. Once the decision was made to proceed, Patrick Jones, national chair of the HSRIG, appointed William Lee as symposium chair. Lee, Humphreys, and Spurgeon then identified a date. Humphreys agreed to administer the review panel and program and to assist generally. Spurgeon would serve as assistant chair for the symposium and eventually wrestled with the scheduling, among other duties. Lee surveyed facilities at the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga (UTC) and in downtown Chattanooga, and decided the symposium would best be held at the historic Chattanooga ChooChoo, a hotel and former railroad station now on the National Register of Historic Places. In the end both Spurgeon and Humphreys assisted Lee in on-site management during the symposium as well. William Lee: I visited the facility one year in advance of the date we intended to use it. I was concerned about the weather, especially the heat, so I walked the facility in June, ate the food, and sat in the rooms to get some sense of things. I rode public transportation and checked out costs for a riverboat dinner we hoped to host. Everything seemed good. Jere Humphreys: Bill's advance work came to typify all the planning for the Chattanooga symposium. It included out-of-the-box thinking and detailoriented follow-through, and gave us opportunities to anticipate problems that might arise. Alan Spurgeon: Without Bill's advance work the conference would not have been nearly as successful. He knew what the community had to offer and gave us the best of it. Beginning in May 2010, a full year in advance, the trio began to organize a planning committee, advisory commitee, public relations committee, and the review panel. Suggestions from HSRIG members were considered, and the symposium announcement began to appear in various academic journals and web sources in early May. UTC department chair Lee Harris pledged staff help and financial support for the audiovisual equipment and printing and granted some summer load release time for Lee. In addition to the UTC, MENC, through its Society for Research in Music Education, also agreed to cosponsor the symposium. …

String and Music Education Associations on Long Island, New York, 1950–1960

Introduction String education was a neglected area of music education in the mid-twentieth century. This resulted in the founding of many important organizations to promote string education. One of the most influential, the American String Teachers Association (ASTA), developed at a Music Educators National Conference (MENC) annual meeting in 1945 in Cleveland, Ohio. (1) In 1948, at the Music Teachers National Association (MTNA) conference, over a hundred string teachers were present for ASTA's formal inauguration. (2) Traugott Rohner, founder of The Instrumentalist magazine, voiced his concern about the need for an orchestra organization in the Music Educators Journal, as he believed school orchestra directors were ignored. (3) In 1959, eighty-eight school directors of the 133 ASTA chartered members united to develop the National School Orchestra Association (NSOA). ASTA and NSOA operated independently but often held spring conferences in conjunction with MENC. Also in 1959, the American Federation of Musicians sponsored the first International String Congress in Tulsa, Oklahoma, to encourage the professional lives of young musicians in the United States and Canada. (4) These organizations would soon be of major importance to string education and help solidify string teaching in America. in the 1950s Thousands of young service men, recently returned from World War II, were ready to start new lives with new homes and jobs in the 1950s. American industry began to expand, jobs were created, and the baby boom was underway. In 1952, the World War II general Dwight D. Eisenhower was elected president. President Eisenhower stated that America is today the strongest, most influential, and most productive nation in the world. (5) During Eisenhower's administration (1952-60), the nation experienced multiple changes. Segregation ended (1954), the highway interstate system was created (1956), and grew from a nation of forty-eight states to fifty (1959). In the music world, rock and roll was in its infancy: the voices of Frank Sinatra, Nat King Cole, and Johnny Cash were still heard on the radio. (6) In the music education field, several important events occurred during this decade. MENC established the Child's Bill of Rights in Music in 1950, to ensure that every child had the right to learn music. In 1953, the Journal of Research in Music Education published its first volume, and the International Society for Music Education had its first postwar meeting in Brussels, Belgium. MENC celebrated its fiftieth anniversary at their annual conference in 1957 and adopted the Golden Anniversary Resolution, which was intended to support music education in a postwar world and look toward the future. These events demonstrated the importance of music education in American lives. The future of American string education began to strengthen during the 1950s. The formation of ASTA strengthened string teachers' knowledge through workshops and annual conferences that provided networking opportunities. The ability to share knowledge about string education in the Music Educators Journal and the establishment of a national orchestra association could not have occurred at a better time. The formation of national string organizations also led to the formation of regional, state, and local groups that supported string education. Research Purpose and Questions The purpose of this study is to examine the history of music and string education associations on Long Island, New York, from 1950 to 1960. Through the use of artifacts, websites, and interviews with two former Long Island string educators, answers were sought for the following research questions: What organizations existed to support string education during the 1950s, and how did the economy on Long Island in that decade affect string education? This study explores the evolution and progress of five associations in New York State and on Long Island and how each was affected by the population boom of the postwar suburban era. …

Dr. Harvey Samuel Whistler Jr. (1907–1976): An Influential Pedagogue and Researcher in Music Education

Instrumental music education in U.S. public schools developed gradually in the Northeast and Midwest around 1896. Over the next thirty years, the instrumental movement gained strength through the organization provided by the development of the Music Supervisors National Conference and through the advocacy efforts of music education innovators such as Will Earhart and Joseph Maddy. By the end of the 1920s, instrumental courses were being accepted into public school curricula; (1) however, as with any new development, concerns arose. School administrators supported the new wave of musical innovations in the curricula, but they struggled to provide the economic and logistical means to sustain such programs. (2) Likewise, new programs required new instructional materials. Teachers needed appropriate pedagogical resources to help them structure their programs more effectively. As a result, an abundance of pedagogical innovations were initiated. (3) One such innovator was Dr. Harvey Samuel Whistler Jr. As a violinist, pedagogue, and researcher, Whistler influenced the advancement of instrumental music education on many scholarly fronts, leaving a legacy of methods, collections, compositions, arrangements and other documents for band and string orchestra. Despite his sizeable output, little is known about his life and work aside from folklore and single-column biographies, many of which conflict or contain errors. (4) This study has a threefold aim: (1) to write a detailed and accurate biography of Whistler that clarifies inconsistencies found in tertiary sources; (2) to discuss and assess the impact that Whistler's pedagogical contributions had on music education; and (3) to evaluate the impact that Whistler's research had on music education. Methodology Most of the primary biographical data regarding Whistler's personal life were procured from Whistler's personal records and the oral recollections of Mrs. Georgeanna Kathryn Beaver Whistler, his wife and widow. The personal records I reviewed consisted of letter correspondence, authored articles, books and drafts, photographs, documents related to professional obligations, financial documents, and other personal memorabilia. The oral recollections of Mrs. Whistler consisted of three interviews. Each one lasted approximately one hour and consisted of a broad, rather than specific, array of questions. Other data were gathered from primary source newspaper articles, Selma-Union High School annuals, a Charles W. Eliot Junior High School newsletter, and articles from the Music Educators Journal and Music Educators National Conference yearbooks. Whistler's authored texts, articles, master's thesis, doctoral candidacy exams, and dissertation were also reviewed. Data were compared from interviews and Whistler's autobiographical documents with other personal records and the primary source documents described above to determine their veracity. Noteworthy discrepancies appear in the footnotes. Data were compiled thematically and then chronologically into historical narrative. Early Life and Formal Education Harvey Samuel Whistler Jr. was born on September 7, 1907, in Fresno, California. His earliest musical training consisted of piano lessons with his mother and trips to local symphony concerts with his father. By age seven, Whistler's parents enrolled him in violin and piano lessons. (5) He eventually abandoned his piano studies and began performing extensively on both violin and viola. The evidence regarding when and with whom Whistler studied violin conflicts. According to some sources, Whistler originally studied with professor George Hastings (1916-19), Will C. Hays of the San Francisco Symphony and director of the Fresno High School Orchestra (1919-24), Kornelis Bering of the San Francisco Symphony (1923-24), Carl Grissen of Oakland (1927), Josef Pirastro-Borissoff--a student of Pablo de Sarasate and Leopold Auer--in Los Angeles (1930-c. …

2012 Biennial Music Educators National Conference

2012 Biennial Music Educators National Conference

School-University Partnerships in Music Education: A Status Report

A survey was distributed to the members of the Music Educators National Conference (MENC)'s Society for Music Teacher Education that presented members with seven questions about the types and nature of their school-university partnerships. The majority of respondents (N = 251) reported that they engaged in multiple partnerships that included not only universities and schools, but also music education associations, community and private arts organizations, individuals, and businesses. The benefits of these partnerships to preservice music teachers were (a) improved learning experiences, (b) the opportunity to gain real-world teaching experience and apply theory to practice, and (c) interaction with musicians and ensembles. The primary benefits to the university and school-based teachers were (a) professional development opportunities, and (b) opportunities for collegiality. Challenges to partnerships were (a) the difficulty of scheduling, (b) a lack of time, and (c) communication. Results revealed that respondents perceive partnerships as being between individuals, that one person usually takes the lead to develop the partnership, and that the benefits of the partnerships outweigh the challenges. Suggestions for policymakers are provided to address the challenges of partnership work.

I (Don’t) Hear America Singing: The List of Songs Americans Should Know and Sing1

In this paper I discuss an instance in which US musical culture was diagnosed, as it were, with an illness, and a prescription was suggested for its cure. I explore the range of responses to the diagnosis and the prescription, locating in them some of the central contentions of American musical culture. In the July 1995 Music Educators Journal, Music Educators National Conference (MENC, now the National Association for Music Education) President Will Schmid asked his readers, “Remember Rac...

A Publication, An Editor, a Progressive Voice: Charles Fowler at Music Educators Journal from 1964 to 1971

Introduction The Music Educators Journal (MEJ) is perhaps one of the best-known journals for music teachers in the United States. In 1914, it was first published by the Music Supervisors National Conference (later called Music Educators National Conference or MENC) and was titled Music Supervisors Journal. Over the years, it experienced many changes, switching names in 1934 to MEJ. Generally, it has been distributed to MENC members, though it is also available to institutions and libraries. It has been an important and widely-read communication tool of the music education profession for nearly 100 years. (1) This study focuses on a brief part of the history of the MEJ during the 1960s to early 1970s. During this period, a young editor named Charles Fowler brought MEJ to an important point in its development. A purpose of this article is to present Fowler's work during the years of 1964 to 1971, when he was editor and contributor to the MEJ. He used this platform to be a strong voice for reform in music education during a turbulent time for the profession and the country. This paper will first present a brief outline of these years, discussing events that influenced music education during that time. Second, it will review Fowler's editorial work at the MEJ, examining closely an early article from 1964 that earned him the invitation to join as editor. Third, will look at his other contributions to the MEJ, including articles mostly written during his tenure, but also considering separate research projects he produced. Many of the ideas Fowler presented in the MEJ more than forty years ago are still at the forefront of music education reform and practice. It is hoped that this look into the past, when many alternative views were being talked about, will serve as a template for approaching the challenges music education faces in present times. A Brief Biography Charles Fowler was born in Peekskill, New York in May, 1931 and entered SUNY-Potsdam as a music education student in 1948. After graduating in 1952, he went to work as a public school music teacher in Rochester, New York. He then attended Northwestern University and earned a Masters degree in 1957. He began teaching at Mansfield State College (now Mansfield University), serving until 1962. Fowler then started a Ph.D. program at Boston University, funded by a Danforth Foundation Fellowship specifically to work with Robert Choate. After completing his dissertation in 1964, he served on the faculty of Northern Illinois University at DeKalb. Beginning in 1965, he began his serious work as writer and editor in music education. From 1965 to 1971, he served as editor of MEJ, and went on to work as Education Editor at Musical America (MA) from 1974 to 1989. In addition to his important editorial contributions, he was a prolific scholar and author. He published approximately 230 articles in various journals both within and outside music education, along with several books and contributions to others. Fowler was also a noted speaker and early advocate for music and arts education. He worked as an independent scholar and consultant in the arts for the majority of his professional life, living in Washington, DC until he died in June, 1995. He served in every capacity that is related to music education and its mission during his career: as teacher, supervisor, professor, writer, scholar, editor, speaker, and advocate. (2) The resonance of Fowler's progressive voice is profound as he challenged values of music teaching and learning, and consistently promoted better conditions, new policies, and distinct approaches to the future of the profession. Placing the Period in Context It is useful to consider Fowler's works in the context of the times in which they were conceived and written. The following section focuses on the years between 1964 and 1971, with attention given to events inside and outside of music education. …

A Historical View of Women in Music Education Careers

Women music educators in the USA have been active in public and schools, churches, and community organizations. In the nineteenth century, Julia E. Crane founded the Crane Institute of Music, the first institution to train music supervisors; and women developed kindergarten programs throughout the US. In the private sphere, women taught in home studios and Sunday schools, and published children's songs and hymns. In 1907, the Music Supervisors National Conference (which became the Music Educators National Conference) was founded under the leadership of Frances E. Clark, although only thirteen women have been president of MENC between 1907 and 2010. In the twentieth century, women have edited music textbook series and served on editorial boards of music education journals. This survey of nationally prominent music educators shows the importance of quality education, guiding personal philosophies, positive supportive mentors, and leadership opportunities within the profession for developing successful lifetime careers.

MENC and Music Education: 1933–1957 Survival and Growth through a Challenging Era

The second twenty-five years of MENC's existence, 1933 to 1957, was an era of unprecedented change and daunting challenge in America. At the same time this period in music education is characterized by unprecedented growth and development in the number of qualified music teachers and the number of children and youth whose lives were touched by those teachers, as well as higher standards for musical learning and performance, and the expansion of research in music and music education. Not only did music education manage to survive this era, but it grew and excelled as never before. The purpose of this study is to examine the work of the Music Supervisors National Conference (MSNC), and later, the work of the Music Educators National Conference (MENC), during the years 1933 to 1957. Research questions are: 1. What constituted the societal and musical context in which the organizations worked? 2. How did the organizations manage to survive through a challenging historical era? 3. How did the organizations achieve growth during this era? 4. What were the most remarkable accomplishments of the era? 5. Who were the most notable leaders? 6. What were the most important external influences on MSNC/MENC? 7. What was MSNC's and MENC's most important influence on others? These years include three distinct time periods: the Great Depression, World War II, and the early Cold War years. I especially value the opportunity to research and write about this era because I recall a great deal of it. In the interest of viewing music education in its historical context, I will also consider each of the three time periods from the perspective of a few personal memories drawn from having lived through the years when those events were happening. The Great Depression, 1933-1941 The first period begins a little more than three years into the Great Depression, which started with the collapse of the stock market in October 1929. America had been through depressions before, and most people thought this one would end quickly. It did not. When President Franklin D. Roosevelt took office, people from all levels of American society were desperately in need of life's basic necessities. In 1933 the national unemployment rate reached a peak of 24.9 percent. (1) Those who were laid off from their jobs received no unemployment compensation, and the Social Security program did not yet exist. Although many families were torn apart by the severe poverty they experienced, in most cases Americans drew closer to family and friends and combined their often-meager resources in order to get by. Roosevelt and the Banks Roosevelt's first act as president was to declare a national holiday, in which all banks were closed for a three-day period. Many of them would never reopen. Whether the fear of bank failures caused the Depression or the Depression caused banks to fail, the result was the same for people who had their life savings in the banks--they lost their money. Americans did not have the financial opportunities and safeguards we take for granted today. For example, there was no such thing as deposit insurance at the beginning of the 1930s. (2) In order to comprehend the severity of the Depression-era bank closures, it is helpful to know that an average of only seventy banks failed nationally each year during the 1920s. During the 1930s, however, the average was 900 bank failures per year. (3) One of the most memorable Depression-related stories from my childhood is my father's description of his experience with the bank holiday. A student at the University of Tennessee in Knoxville, he went to his bank the morning after Roosevelt's announcement, only to find a long line of angry customers waiting outside the locked doors. Reaching into his pocket, he found a university cafeteria meal ticket. …

American Music Education 1941–1946: Meeting Needs and Making Adjustments during World War II

and the societal changes that occurred over the next five years were felt in every facet of the nation. These societal changes were shaping educational policy and practice even as American music educators attempted to continue their programs in the face of material shortages, large numbers of teachers leaving the profession to join the service, and governmental restrictions on travel. As contemporary American music educators confront the challenges of teaching in times of world tensions, a reflection on events of the past may provide some perspective as to how the profession may function and remain strong during periods of social and political crisis and hardship. Historically, drastic changes in the economy brought massive societal transformation, and educational policies and programs were affected by these changes. Voices from the past, such as that of music educator Lillian Baldwin in 1943, are reminders of contemporary events: What about the children caught up in this net of forced brutality, the youngsters who hear and see and sense the violence and cannot rationalize it?1 While many Americans then and now share this concern, music educators commonly hold the belief that young peoples involvement in musical experiences may help alleviate a fear of the seemingly illogical events of wartime and world tensions. An examination of the Music Educators Journal (MEJ) from 1941 to 1946 provides a unique reflection of the response by music teachers associated with the Music Educators National Conference (MENC) to the political and societal changes during World War II. Articles and letters published in the MEJ reflect the perspectives of music educators at home as well as those who had left their positions to serve their country in musical or non-musical positions. Advertisements presented a picture of the growing interest in patriotic music and materials for use by many different types of performing groups, in general

Mpping Music Education Research in the USA: A Response to the UK

The research enterprise in the United States is a vast one, with at least 15 music education and two music therapy research journals. This is in addition to the multitude of papers presented at a myriad of state, regional and national conferences, including the hundreds of papers presented at the biannual meetings of the Music Educators National Conference (MENC): National Association for Music Education. Much of the USA music education research occurs in situ, such as general music classrooms and secondary ensemble rehearsals, and examines the impact of different aspects of teaching strategies on students’ attentiveness, attitudes and achievement, as well as studying informal learning. While common in the USA, it is unusual to see work in the UK that focuses on ensemble conducting or music classroom or ensemble management. Also, work in the USA can be classified under the titles used by the Special Research Interest Groups of MENC: Affective Response, Adult and Community Music Education, Creativity, Early Childhood, Gender Research in Music Education, History, Instructional Strategies, Learning and Development, Measurement and Evaluation, Perception and Cognition, Philosophy, and Social Sciences. Of late, there has been an increased interest in multicultural issues in research as well. There is a deficit of published philosophical inquiry, however.

Allen P. Britton: The Father of Us All

Music education today owes a debt to Allen Britton for the professional research structures he helped put in place nearly fifty years ago. The Special Research Interest Groups (SRIGs, as they are known) of the Music Educators National Conference (MENC) are an outgrowth of the founding of the Journal of Research in Music Education (JRME), Allen Britton's ground-breaking forum for the dissemination of research on music teaching and learning. Other research periodicals such as the Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, Southeastern Journal of Research in Music Education, Journal of Music Teacher Education, Update, and a host of state and regional journals have come into being over the last fifty years in support of or in reaction to the success of the Journal of Research in Music Education. Allen Britton's JRME succeeded in becoming the central publishing arm of the music education research community because he set into motion a chain of events that gave identity and self-definition to the members of that community. To understand that chain of events, one must go back to the 1940s, before the JRME was established. In his 1948 dissertation on the history of the MENC, John Molnar notes that, in the early days of MENC, the mission of the organization's National Research Council of Music Education (NRC) was to gather data for MENC officials who then used the information to develop policy. According to Molnar, in 1937 the research council, which had been renamed the Music Education Research Council (MERC), petitioned the MENC to have this function altered to reflect a growing interest in research not centered on the needs of the organization.1 Such an action, i.e., that an agency might redefine itself in light of emerging

Regional Findings from a Secondary Analysis of the 1997 NAEP Art Assessment Based on Responses to Creating and Responding Exercises

In 1969 Congress charged U.S. Department of Education through National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES) with developing and implementing nationally representative and continuing measurement of student achievement in American schools. Assessment of visual arts achievement began with 1974 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) and continued in 1978. Findings from these assessments provided initiative for similar high stakes, large-scale, state level assessments of visual arts achievement in 1980s (Sabol, 1990, 1994, 1998a; Shuler & Connealy, 1998). However, subsequent NAEP visual arts assessments were not forthcoming. It was not until 17 years later that visual arts were included again as part of NAEP. Only after arts was added to nation's goals as a core subject (U.S. Department of Education, 1994) and Congress stated that the arts are forms of understanding and knowing that are fundamentally important to education (U.S. Congress, 1994, p 2) were arts reintroduced in assessment. Subsequently, assessments were done in visual arts, music, and theater. Dance was not included in 1997 NAEP. Each student who participated in assessment was assessed in one of three arts. The National Assessment Governing Board (NAGB) was established to formulate policy guidelines for NAEP. It is responsible for selecting subject areas to be assessed, developing assessment objectives, identifying appropriate achievement goals for each grade level and subject tested, and establishing standards and procedures for interstate and national comparisons (National Assessment Governing Board, 1997). The NAGB divided processes involved in visual arts into creating and responding categories and outlined specific knowledge and skills content for each category in its assessment framework for arts (National Assessment Governing Board, 1997). The NAEP framework was deliberately designed to reflect best practices from field and to be compatible with national arts standards (Music Educators National Conference, 1994; National Assessment Governing Board, 1997). Assessment exercises included authentic tasks that assessed knowledge and skills in creating and responding to visual arts. Independent sets of exercises on 1997 NAEP in art were divided into Creating and Responding blocks. Items in these blocks focused on content knowledge, skills, and processes used in making and responding to art. Measurement of students' Creating and Responding ability also is compatible with national visual arts standards (Music Educators National Conference, 1994), visual arts curriculum development (Sabol, 1994), and visual arts classroom practices. A total of eight blocks were developed including three Creating blocks, two Responding blocks, and three blocks that combined assessment of creating and responding knowledge and skills in visual arts.1 No student completed all blocks of assessment. Students completed either one Responding block and one Creating block or two Responding blocks. In order to measure students' knowledge and skills in creating, students were required to create and work with various media to make visual art. Students showed abilities to communicate in works of art, think of different solutions to visual problems, generate for works of art and design, and use their technical proficiency in realizing those ideas (Persky, Sandene, & Askew, 1998, p. 80). They also were asked to evaluate their own work in written form. Evaluation questions asked students to identify, describe, and analyze important qualities in their work. Responding blocks included exercises in which students viewed works of art representing a variety of cultures, genres, and historical periods. Responding questions focused on students' ability to demonstrate their knowledge of media and techniques, visual organization, cultural contexts of artworks, and how user needs are met with well-- designed functional objects. …