Muscle Bands Research Articles

Prevalence of Trapezius Trigger Points in Young Healthy Individuals

MTrPs are labelled as hard, discrete, and palpable nodules in a taut band of skeletal muscle. It can be further divided into 2 forms, if it is spontaneously painful (i.e., active trigger points) or painful only on compression (i.e., latent trigger points). Objectives: To determine the frequency of active and latent trigger points of trapezius in healthy individuals and to find out its association with gender. Methods: A cross sectional survey was conducted from April 2018-August 2018 after getting approval from the ethical committee of Riphah College of Rehabilitation Sciences. The sample size was 323 which were selected by non-probability (convenient sampling) technique. Data were collected through self-structured questionnaire which also included trigger points assessment form. The data were analyzed using SPSS 24. Results: The mean age of participants was 23.60±4.6years with 60(19.8%) males and 243(80.2%) females. The trapezius trigger point 2 was found more active on right side (TT2Rt side) in 91(30%) and left side (TT2Lt side) 57(18.8%). While the same was more latent in 75(24.8%) on right side (TT2Rt side) and 86(28.4%) on left side (TT2Rt side) among the participants. There was no significant association between active trigger points and gender (p>0.245), as well as the association between latent trigger point and gender was not significant (p>0.740). Conclusions: The frequency of trapezius trigger point is less in healthy individuals whereas the majority of the young individuals have at least one or two active or latent trigger points. There was no significant association of both active and latent trigger points with gender.

Indispensable Role of Transesophageal Echocardiography in Double-Chamber Right Ventricle Repair Surgery

Double-chamber right ventricle repair surgery requires the excision of anomalous obstructive muscular or fibromuscular bundles in the right ventricular outflow tract. Because of the close proximity of key structures in the right ventricular outflow tract, the surgery is extremely challenging and requires precise resection. Underresection of the muscle bands can lead to significant residual gradients in the postoperative period, whereas overenthusiastic resection can cause iatrogenic injury to surrounding structures. Various techniques like Hegar sizing by the surgeons, direct chamber pressure measurement, transesophageal echocardiography, and epicardial echocardiography can guide the surgeons about the adequacy of repair. Transesophageal echocardiography is crucial at each step, as it can precisely determine the exact site of obstruction in the preoperative period. Postoperatively, it helps determine the adequacy of surgical repair and identification of inadvertent iatrogenic complications.

Comparative Effects of Strain Counterstrain and Ischemic Compression Technique in Patients with Upper Trapezius Trigger Points

Background: The trigger points are hyperirritable spots found usually in the muscle fascia or within the taut bands of skeletal muscles that is painful on compression. Ischemic compression technique uses the application of sustained pressure with sufficient force and for long enough so as to slow down the flow of blood and releasing tension out of the muscle. Strain counterstrain (SCS), also known as positional release, is a passive positional treatment that relieves musculoskeletal pain and dysfunction by indirect hand manipulation. Objectives: The aim of this study was to compare the effects of ischemic compression technique and strain counterstrain technique on pain, neck lateral flexion and disability in patients with upper trapezius trigger points. Methodology: The RCT was conducted on 36 male and female participants aging 25-45 having maximum of 5 trigger points in the upper trapezius bilaterally. The patients were divided equally to ischemic compression and strain counterstrain group by lottery method. The treatment was given for 3 days a week for 4 weeks. The NPRS, NDI and cervical lateral flexion were used as outcome measure. The assessment of the outcome measures was done on baseline, after 2nd week and after 4th week. The data was analyzed by SPSS version 26 using appropriate tests depending upon the normality by keeping the level of significance at 0.05. Results: Out of 36 participants (Mean age 32.96 ± 5.91), 20 were male and 16 were female, 3 participants lost to follow up. The within group analysis of NPRS and NDI done by Friedman test and that of cervical flexion done by repeated measures ANOVA showed that the both the interventions has produced significant (p<0.05) effects on pain, neck disability and range of motion, but the between group analysis of NPRS and NDI done by Mann-Whitney test and that of Cervical ROM done by Independent samples t-test showed that none of the two technique produced significant results (p>0.05) as compared to the other in subjects with upper trapezius trigger points. Conclusion: A 4-week intervention of the ischemic compression and strain counterstrain produced significant results in reducing the intensity of pain, the cervical disability and improving the cervical range of motion, but the intergroup comparison showed that both the ischemic compression and strain counterstrain were equally effective and none of them produced significant results as compared to others on patients with upper trapezius trigger points. Keywords: Ischemic Compression Technique; Strain Counterstrain; Upper Trapezius Trigger Points.

Additions to the Morphology of the Cucumariidae. I. Intraspecific Variation of the Retractor Muscle in Parathyone braziliensis (Verrill, 1868) and Thyonidium seguroensis (Deichmann, 1930) (Holothuroidea: Dendrochirotida)

Intraspecific variation of the gross morphology of the retractor muscle was studied in 60 specimens of Parathyone braziliensis and 17 specimens of Thyonidium seguroensis. Specimens were dissected to expose the retractor muscle or were analyzed by micro-computed tomography. Early expectations that the point of origin of the retractor muscle at the longitudinal muscle relative to the midpoint of the body length was age-related and that the split of the retractor muscle into separate muscle bands could be used as taxonomic characters to separate species were not supported by anatomical evidence.

Trigger Point Deactivation in MPDS: A Comprehensive Guide to Non-invasive Therapeutic Modalities

Myofascial pain syndrome MPS is defined as pain origination due to the activation of myofascial trigger points present in taut bands of skeletal muscle. This article aimed to review the existing hypothesis regarding the deactivation of trigger points in myofascial region as a treatment modality to reduce the muscle pain. Various pharmacologic interventional methods were reviewed such as are physiotherapy occlusal therapy anti-inflammatory and analgesics manual and massage technique muscle relaxants transcutaneous electric nerve stimulation laser therapy ultrasound therapy and botulinum toxin which may be attempted in severe cases. Through a critical evidence-based review of the pharmacologic and non-pharmacologic treatment options this article aims to provide clinicians with a complete comprehensive knowledge of the interventions for deactivation of trigger points in the treatment of myofascial pain.

Sensory and emotional responses to deep pressure stimulation at myofascial trigger points: a pilot study.

Although manual pressure, such as that used during a massage, is often associated with pain, it can simultaneously be perceived as pleasant when applied to certain body areas. We hypothesized that stimulation of myofascial trigger points (TPs) leads to simultaneous pain and pleasure. TPs are hyperirritable points located in the taut band of the skeletal muscle. In this study, we measured the muscle tone, muscle stiffness, and pressure pain threshold of TPs and control points in the left brachioradialis muscle of 48 healthy participants. We also applied deep compression to the two points and collected subjective data on pain, pleasantness, unpleasantness, and relief. Greater muscle stiffness was observed in the TPs versus control points (t = 6.55, p < 0.001), and the pain threshold was significantly lower in the TPs (t = -6.21, p < 0.001). Unpleasantness ratings after deep compression were significantly lower in the TPs compared with control points (t = -2.68, p < 0.05). Participants experienced greater relief at the TPs compared with control points (t = 2.01, p < 0.05), although the perceived pain did not differ between the two types of points. We compared the properties of TPs and control points, and found that deep compression at TPs was associated with higher muscle tone and stiffness, lower unpleasantness ratings, and higher relief ratings compared with the control points. These findings suggest that, at least for some TPs, pain and pleasantness are simultaneously elicited by deep pressure stimulation.

The Effect of Fatigue on Flexion or Extension of Cervical Region in Participants with Myofascial Trigger Point in Upper Trapezius Muscle

Myofascial Pain Syndrome (MPS) is one of the most frequent causes of muscle pain. MPS is characterized by the presence of a myofascial trigger point (MTrP), defined as a hypersensitive spot in a taut band of a skeletal muscle that is painful to stimulation (compression, or needling), elicits a referred pain distant to the spot, and is associated with restricted range of motion. The purpose of this study was to assess the correlation between fatigue over a myofascial trigger point in the upper trapezius muscle and range of motion of the cervical spine, electromyographic activity, and pain in patients with myofascial trigger point. Methods: This is a single-blind cross-sectional study. Forty participants of both sexes, aged 18 to 35 years, with chronic neck pain and myofascial trigger points in the upper trapezius muscle were included in the study. The participants were assessed using the Numeric Rating Scale, algometry and electromyographic activity. Results: Improvement in flexion range of motion was found to be greater in interventional group compared to the control group( p&lt;0.05). Conclusion: Fatigue applied to the interventional group can reduce pain and disability, and increase ROM in individuals with MTrP. This treatment may therefore be considered for use as an alternative method in treating MTrP.

IMPACT OF BORDEAUX MIXTURE ON BEHAVIOURAL, HISTOLOGICAL AND SOME BIOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS OF COMMON CARP (Cyprinus carpio L)

Copper based compounds are used to control pests worldwide but they can be toxic to fish and other non-target organisms. So, it is essential to identify effective formulations with the lowest non-target toxicities. In this study the toxic effects of Bordeaux mixture on fingerlings of common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) was studied. In the common carp fingerlings behavioural, histological alteration and biochemical variations were evaluated. The LC50 of Bordeaux on common carp was 0.04, 0.05, 0.06 and 0.07 mg/L. Fish mortality increased significantly with increasing concentration and time of exposure. Behavioural responses of fish samples exposed to Bordeaux mixture included uncontrolled swimming, erratic movements, loss of balance and swimming near the water surface with sudden jerk movements. The treated fingerlings showed histopathological alterations in their muscles and gill lamellae. Splitting of muscle fibre and muscle band degeneration of studied fish samples was observed in muscle tissue. The major changes observed in gills included ruptured gill epithelium, lamellar fusion, epithelial lifting and vacuolization at the tip of lamellae. The fungicide decreased the concentration of glycogen and protein in muscle and gill tissue compared to control samples. In conclusion, this study suggests that judicious use of fungicides should be practiced by farmers. Use of Bio pesticides and natural products should be encouraged to reduce the toxic effects of the fungicides.

Muscle Regeneration in Holothurians without the Upregulation of Muscle Genes.

The holothurian Eupentacta fraudatrix is capable of fully restoring its muscles after transverse dissection. Although the regeneration of these structures is well studied at the cellular level, the molecular basis of the process remains poorly understood. To identify genes that may be involved in the regulation of muscle regeneration, the transcriptome of the longitudinal muscle band of E. fraudatrix has been sequenced at different time periods post-injury. An analysis of the map of biological processes and pathways has shown that most genes associated with myogenesis decrease their expression during the regeneration. The only exception is the genes united by the GO term "heart valve development". This may indicate the antiquity of mechanisms of mesodermal structure transformation, which was co-opted into various morphogeneses in deuterostomes. Two groups of genes that play a key role in the regeneration have been analyzed: transcription factors and matrix metalloproteinases. A total of six transcription factor genes (Ef-HOX5, Ef-ZEB2, Ef-RARB, Ef-RUNX1, Ef-SOX17, and Ef-ZNF318) and seven matrix metalloproteinase genes (Ef-MMP11, Ef-MMP13, Ef-MMP13-1, Ef-MMP16-2, Ef-MMP16-3, Ef-MMP24, and Ef-MMP24-1) showing differential expression during myogenesis have been revealed. The identified genes are assumed to be involved in the muscle regeneration in holothurians.

Isolated double-chambered right ventricle in a young female – a rare congenital heart disease: Evaluation by transthoracic color echocardiography and cardiac computed tomography

A double-chambered right ventricle (DCRV) is a rare congenital heart disease and an uncommon cause of congestive cardiac failure. An anomalous muscle band divides the right ventricle into two cavities, the proximal high-pressure chamber, and distal low-pressurechamber. Its origin is debated. Most cases are diagnosed and treated during childhood. Furthermore, there is tendency for progression, if not treated. Echocardiography is considered useful for diagnosis. About 80–90% patients have associated congenital anomalies, such as ventricular septal defect, pulmonary stenosis, and subaortic stenosis. Isolated DCRV is exceptionally rare. Hence, we are reporting a case of an isolated DCRV in an asymptomatic young female patient.

Male and female reproductive systems of the pseudocycnid copepod Cybicola armatus (Bassett-Smith, 1898) (Siphonostomatoida) infecting the commercially important scombrid fish Scomberomorus commerson: a light and electron microscopic study

Abstract Cybicola armatus (Bassett-Smith, 1898), a host-specific parasitic copepod, massively infects gill filaments of the scombrid fish, Scomberomorus commerson. While the female attaches to the host fish’s gills, the relatively small-sized male prefers to attach to the female genital somite in copulatory position. To our knowledge this is the first report on the structural features of male and female reproductive organs of C. armatus, a pseudocycnid parasite, using morphological, histological, histochemical and ultrastructural parameters. In males, the sac-like testis is followed by a highly coiled vas deferens ending with a bulbous spermatophore sac in which the round-shaped spermatozoa are abundantly seen. Histologically, germ cells in the testis are at different maturation stages and region-specific. In females, the ovaries are comprised of germarium, previtellogenic oocytes and follicle cells. However, interestingly, mature vitellogenic oocytes enveloped by follicular cells are seen only in the oviducts, which are ensheathed by longitudinal and circular muscle bands. The spermathecae of the post-copulatory females contain filiform spermatozoa, while in pre-copulatory specimens, the spermathecae appear as thin, flabby structures. The post-copulatory female carries spermatophore sacs at her genital orfice. The developing eggs in the egg sacs did not display synchrony with respect to stages of embryogenesis, as borne out from histological studies. The currently reported study also demonstrates, for the first time, the copulatory events of C. armatus that help us understand the mode of sperm transfer in this fish parasite. The total of information derived from the currently reported study is pertinent not only from the perspective of understanding the reproductive mechanism and adaptive strategies of a potential, but rather unexplored pseudocycnid copepod. Rather, it throws light as well on the necessity and, until now, inadequacy of investigations on parasitic crustaceans that inflict heavy damage to fisheries and contaminate the aquatic ecosystem.

Fascia and Myofascial Pain Syndrome - An Overview

This paper synthesized the available published literature on myofascia, its structure, myofascial disorder, causative factors, scientific methods for evaluation and treatments, etc. The importance of myofascial in chronic and acute musculoskeletal pain is overlooked. According to Waller et al., mention in their article, up to 85% of people will experience myofascial pain at least once during their life. The myofascia is a musculoskeletal cell matrix that supports muscular connective tissue, it is essential for generating forces between muscles and also provides better flexibility. Myofascial pain syndrome is described as sensory, motor, and autonomic signs and symptoms that are produced by trigger points or taut bands of skeletal muscle or fascia. A myofascial trigger point is painful on compression and can give rise to referred pain, motor dysfunction, and automatic event, it restricts the range of motion and force generation capacity. Therefore, it is utmost importance to know about myofascial disorders, their prevention techniques, diagnosis, and treatment.

Immunohistochemical Study of Smooth Muscle Cells and Elastin in Goose Lungs

Abstract There are many differences (morphological, physiological and mechanical) between the lungs of birds and the lungs of mammals. Birds have a more efficient exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide than mammals. In this article, we studied the presence of four antibodies (actin, α-smooth muscle actin, desmin and elastin) in the lungs of geese. Smooth muscle cells (SMCs) immunoreactive to actin, α-SMA and desmin were observed in the primary and secondary bronchi and arranged as a continuous layer. In the tertiary bronchus (parabronchus), immunoreactive cells on α-SMA and desmin were observed as aggregations of smooth muscle cells in the septum tips in atrial opening. A small number of α-SMA and desmin-positive cells were observed on the periphery of the parabronchi and between the air and blood capillaries. The elastic fibres were found in the large bronchi in connection with smooth muscle bands. In the parabronchi the elastic fibres form an elastic membrane lining the parabronchial lumen. In the blood vessels, the elastic fibres form the inner and outer elastic membrane. The individual elastic membranes connect neighbouring blood vessels.

Anatomical Substract of the Temporal Muscle Myofascial Trigger Points in Fresh Cadavers

BackgroundMyofascial syndrome is a common cause of chronic musculoskeletal pain and is characterized by myofascial trigger points (MTPs). MTPs are clinically identified by palpation of a muscle or fascial taut band. Although pathophysiology of MTPs remains unclear, coincidence between them and muscle motor plate at the innervation zone (IZ) have been reported. The temporal muscle is related to headache and temporomandibular disorders and pain radiates from hyperalgesic points to distant areas symptomatic patients. Clinical reports usually describe four trigger points located in the temporal muscle and we aimed to identify anatomical correlation with muscle innervation.MethodsWe dissected the temporal muscles from five fresh cadavers to observe the exact point where nerve fibers penetrated the muscle belly. As muscle size varies among individuals, we calculated the relative entry point of the nerve into the muscle by defining six different areas in the muscle belly: three superior (I, II and III) and three inferior (IV, V and VI), beginning at the posterior margin of the muscle. Statistical analysis of anatomical data was obtained by Poisson distribution and logarithm link function followed by Bonferroni multiple comparisons. The comparison of points between the sides was made by Student’s t‐test. IBM‐SPSS for Windows version 20.0 software was used to perform the analysis, and Microsoft Excel 2003 software was used to tabulate the data. Data are presented as the mean ± standard deviation, and the level of significance was adjusted to 5% (p &lt;0.05) for all tests.ResultsThe number of temporal nerve branches did not differ between sides. Areas II and V had the largest number of temporal nerve entry sites, with a mean of 3 (22%) and 5 (36%) points, respectively. Areas III and VI had a mean of 2 sites both (14%) and areas I and IV, one (7%).ConclusionIn accordance with the clinical literature, the branches of the temporal nerve in the temporal muscle corresponded to the described areas of the myofascial trigger points (MTPs). Anatomical correlations between MTPs may be a useful tool for a better understanding of the physiopathology of these disorders and may provide a rational basis for their treatment.

Anatomical Study of the Innervation of the Fibularis Longus (FL) Muscle and its Correlation with Miofascial Trigger Points: Preliminary Results

BackgroundMyofascial syndrome is a common cause of chronic musculoskeletal pain and results in dysfunction of the affected muscles. It is characterized by myofascial trigger points (MTPs) which are clinically identified by palpation of a muscle or fascial taut band. Previous publications have found MTPs to coincide with neuromuscular junctions at the innervation zone (IZ). The fibularis longus syndrome is one of the most frequent myofascial syndrome of the lower limbs and occurs due to a wide variety of etiologies, most commonly, overuse and ankle sprain. Referred pain and tenderness caused by the trigger points of the FL muscle are located above, behind and below the lateral malleolus and may extend along the lateral aspect of the foot and leg.ObjectiveOur study aimed to correlate the innervation of the FL muscle to clinically described MTPs.MethodsFL muscles from five cadavers were dissected to observe the exact point where nerve fibers penetrated the muscle belly. As muscle size varies among individuals, we describe the relative entry point of the nerve into the muscle by defining four different areas in the muscle belly: two superior (I, II) and two inferior (III and IV). Statistical analysis of anatomical data was obtained by Poisson distribution and logarithm link function followed by Bonferroni multiple comparisons.ResultsWe found a mean of 12 branches of the superficial fibular nerve to the FL muscle. All of them were located into the areas I (67%) and II (33%). No branches were observed in areas III and IV. Our findings corresponded to previously described MTPs.ConclusionAnatomical correlation between MTPs may be a useful tool for a better understanding of the physiopathology of these disorders and may provide a rational basis for their treatment.

Effects of Low Level Laser Therapy Vs Ultrasound Therapy in the Management of Active Trapezius Trigger Points

Background: Trigger point is a extremely irritable local spot of exquisite tenderness in the nodule within the tangible taut muscle band. The prevalence studies have shown that the occurrence of myofascial trigger point in the general population.&#x0D; Objective: The aim of the study was compare the effects of low level laser therapy( LLLT) Vs ultrasound therapy in the management of active trapezius trigger point.&#x0D; Methodology: The participants will be allocated into two groups using simple random sampling. One group has to be given Low level laser therapy (LLLT) and Moist Heat and other group treated with US and Moist Heat. Both group receive treatment for 3 times a week. Total number of 9 session has to be given in 21 days. The outcome measure has to be taken at the first day and end of the day. &#x0D; Conclusion: Based on the above results we conclude that Low Level Laser Therapy can be used as a therapeutic device in the management of Active Trapezius Trigger points.

Trigger point injections for myofascial pelvic pain

The objectives of this video are to define myofascial pelvic pain syndrome, illustrate relevant pelvic floor anatomy and exam techniques for the assessment of pelvic floor myofascial pain, and demonstrate trigger point injections to the pelvic floor muscles in a cadaver model. Myofascial pelvic pain syndrome is characterized by contracted bands of skeletal muscles that contain discrete, painful nodules known as trigger points. Trigger points may develop as the primary source of pain or may develop as a downstream effect from other disorders within the pelvis. Myofascial pelvic pain tends to co-exist with other visceral pelvic diseases such as endometriosis or bladder pain syndrome. There is good evidence to support the use of trigger point injections for myofascial pelvic pain. Injections may consist of local anesthetics with or without a steroid. Studies have also evaluated the use of botulinum toxin injections to the pelvic floor muscles for treatment of refractory pelvic floor myofascial pain. This video demonstrates a pelvic floor muscle examination using a cadaver model in addition to performing trigger point injections to the pelvic floor muscles. In conclusion, myofascial pelvic pain syndrome is an important contributor to chronic pelvic pain; a thorough pelvic floor muscle assessment will allow identification of potential trigger points, and trigger point injections may be performed for both diagnostic and therapeutic benefit.

Occurrence and patterns of nutritional traits and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sea cucumber (Holothuria polii) tissues: benefits and risk for human health

Abstract Objectives The paper evaluates the benefit and risk for human health associated with consumption of sea cucumber Holothuria polii (H. polii) from Italian coasts (Central Mediterranean Sea). Materials and Methods Body wall (BW), internal tunic (ITu), muscle bands (MBs), alimentary canal (AC), gonad (Gd), and respiratory tree (RT) of H. polii were analyzed for proximate composition. Moreover, amino acids (AAs), fatty acids (FAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were determined with high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UPLC UV/Vis), gas chromatography-flame ionization detector (GC-FID) and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS), respectively. Results Differences in the contents of total amino acids (TAAs) occurred based on tissue and sex, with AC and MB of female and Gd of male showing higher contents (range 47.8–60.2 g/kg we weight (ww)). Glycine and glutamic acid were the most abundant. Polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) was the major class of FAs and arachidonic acid and eicosapentenoic acid (EPA) were the predominant PUFA. n-3 PUFA showed higher content in Gd, AC, and RT, indicating higher quality. A favorable n-3/n-6 in the range of 1.04–1.67 was observed. PAHs showed values ranging from 23 to 207 µg/kg ww with the highest levels in Gd and AC tissues and the lower in BW. Benzo[a]pyrene, the most toxic compound, was detected in all tissues, of both sexes, at levels of 1.5–18 µg/kg ww. Conclusion All tissues of H. polii, although with differences among them, are valuable food and can contribute for a healthy diet. Excess cancer risk (CR) values for Gd and AC tissues were above the considerable CR threshold of one in 10 000 established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) for high ingestion rate of this seafood.

Double appendix with appendicitis: case report

The frequency of doubling of the appendix, according to the literature, is about 0.004% of the number of appendectomies. According to the literature, there were about 100 cases, of which 15 were complicated by the acute form. Doubling can be partial, complete or of several types: a shoot in the form of a double-barreled gun; "avian" in which there are two developed processes located on both sides of the cecum; and one process is located in its usual place, and the other, as a rule, rudimentary, is located along one of the muscle bands. Doubling of the appendix can be in the cecum or in the duplication of the cecum. It was first described and systematized in 1936 by Cave, then in 1962 by Wallbridge, then in 1993 by Biermann.

Organisation of the musculature of the rat stomach.

The strengths, directions and coupling of the movements of the stomach depend on the organisation of its musculature. Although the rat has been used as a model species to study gastric function, there is no detailed, quantitative study of the arrangement of the gastric muscles in rat. Here we provide a descriptive and quantitative account, and compare it with human gastric anatomy. The rat stomach has three components of the muscularis externa, a longitudinal coat, a circular coat and an internal oblique (sling) muscle in the region of the gastro-oesophageal junction. These layers are similar to human. Unlike human, the rat stomach is also equipped with paired muscular oesophago-pyloric ligaments that lie external to the longitudinal muscle. There is a prominent muscularis mucosae throughout the stomach and strands of smooth muscle occur in the mucosa, between the glands of the corpus and antrum. The striated muscle of the oesophageal wall reaches to the stomach, unlike the human, in which the wall of the distal oesophagus is smooth muscle. Thus, the continuity of gastric and oesophageal smooth muscle bundles, that occurs in human, does not occur in rat. Circular muscle bundles extend around the circumference of the stomach, in the fundus forming a cap of parallel muscle bundles. This arrangement favours co-ordinated circumferential contractions. Small bands of muscle make connections between the circular muscle bundles. This is consistent with a slower conduction of excitation orthogonal to the circular muscle bundles, across the corpus towards the distal antrum. The oblique muscle merged and became continuous with the circular muscle close to the gastro-oesophageal junction at the base of the fundus, and in the corpus, lateral to the lesser curvature. Quantitation of muscle thickness revealed gradients of thickness of both the longitudinal and circular muscle. This anatomical study provides essential data for interpreting gastric movements.