Muntiacus Reevesi Research Articles

Repetitive sequence families in Alces alces americana.

High-resolution derivative melting was used to obtain detailed distributions of local (G + C) contents in a number of ruminant DNAs. Profiles over low (G + C) regions [20-36% (G + C)] are congruent for all ruminants. This region represents 45-50% of the nuclear DNA content and primarily contains intergenic and intron sequences. The high (G + C) region, where most coding sequences are found [38-68% (G + C)], is marked by satellite bands denoting the presence of transcriptionally inert, tandemly repetitive sequence families. These bands can be analyzed for the abundance, base composition, and sequence divergence of satellite families with relatively high precision. Band patterns are unique to each species; even closely related species can be readily distinguished by their base distribution profiles. Variations in nuclear DNA contents in ruminants, determined by flow cytometry, are primarily due to variations in abundances of these repetitive sequence families. Thus, A. alces (moose) is found to have 8.85 +/- 0.2 pg DNA/cell, 25% more than the average in ruminants, while the base distribution curve indicates the presence of an unusually abundant satellite of 52.6% (G + C). The size (1 kb) and sequence of this satellite corresponds to satellite-I of other cervids, and in consequence it is designated Alces-I. The sequence of a cloned repeat of Alces-I has a length of 968 bp, a (G + C) content of 52.6%, and contributes 35%, or almost 3 million copies to the nuclear DNA, exceeding by approximately 300% the average array size of this repeat family in related cervids. In situ hybridization indicates the repeat is distributed throughout centromeric regions of all 62 acrocentric autosomes. Alces-I has much greater-than-expected numbers of GG, GA, and AG and far fewer numbers of TA and CG duplets, characteristics of all tandem repeats. The sequence is judged to be orthologous with satellite-I sequences from Rangifer tarandus (caribou), Capreolus capreolus (roe deer), Muntiacus muntjac (Chinese muntjac) and Muntiacus reevesi (Indian muntjac), as well as Antilocapra americana (pronghorn), and the bovids Bos taurus and Ovis aries. A tentative tree for the five cervids is in excellent agreement with one proposed on the basis of morphological characteristics. Differences from a consensus sequence indicate transversions exceed transitions by almost twofold, suggesting that substitutions occur randomly, or nearly so.

Reproductive strategies and the influence of date of birth on growth and sexual development of an aseasonally‐breeding ungulate: Reeves' muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi)

Unlike most species of deer, Reeves' muntjac does not have a seasonal reproductive cycle. Births are equally distributed throughout the year and, irrespective of season of birth, females start breeding when they have reached a minimum body weight of about 10 kg. A significantly smaller proportion of females is born in the autumn/winter than the spring/summer, but there is no effect of maternal age or condition on foetal sex ratios for first or subsequent pregnancies. Whilst aseasonal breeding increases female productivity, males are only able to hold territories encompassing the ranges of a number of does for a relatively short period of time. It is argued that for muntjac there is much less inter‐sexual variation in lifetime reproductive success than for seasonally‐breeding polygynous cervids. Hence, although muntjac are sexually dimorphic and polygynous, females do not invest preferentially in male offspring.Young males can be fertile from 36 weeks of age, when their first antlers are still in velvet. Whilst season of birth has no effect on the rate of sexual development in females, it does for males, with autumn‐born male fawns attaining sexual maturity earliest. This accelerated development occurs in the period following independence from the mother, and there is no evidence of a maternal cost in producing male fawns. Since the canine tusks are the main weapons for intra‐sexual conflict, there could be clear gains in terms of reproductive success for males that attain sexual maturity, adult weight and adult tusk size quickly, even though their first antlers are much smaller than those of older bucks. The hypothesis is presented that, for muntjac, the majority of a male's lifetime reproductive success is achieved relatively early in life when the canine tusks are in pristine condition, and that bucks lose their territories, and associated access to oestrous does, once the canines are broken.

Mortality in a feral population of muntjac Muntiacus reevesi in England

In Monks Wood National Reserve in Cambridgeshire, England, the death occurred of approximately half of a large, feral population of muntjac deer Muntiacus reevesi (Ogilby, 1839) during January to April 1994. From their body mass and from post-mortem examination, the deer were evidently starving, and pneumonia was the ultimate cause of death in a number of cases. The incident coincident with increased foraging activity. Mortality was much reduced in 1995. Examination of a sample of deer shot in 1995 indicated body mass to be higher than for the 1994 casualties, but still lower than for deer from other sites. Without direct management of the population, future mortality incidents may be anticipated when the winter population is relatively high of weather conditions unfavourable.

Damage to coppice regrowth by muntjac deer Muntiacus reevesi and protection with electric fencing

There is concern in Britain about damage to nature conservation from expanding populations of the non-native muntjac deer Muntiacus reevesi. In Monks Wood National Nature Reserve, muntjac attained a suffciently high population by 1985 for significant damage to coppice regrowth to result. Electric fences have been used since 1988 to protect sensitive areas. Observations on regrowth of ash Fraxinus excelsior showed that while damage inside fences was significantly reduced when compared with areas outside, the fences sometimes failed to provide adequate protection. Observations on all coppice areas fenced since 1988 revealed that the extent of canopy formation was positively related to the density of surviving stools and to the area of adjacent rides. Improvements are suggested for fence design and the siting of coppiced areas. Techniques are outlined for monitoring contemporary damage, for evaluating damage retrospectively and for assessing abundance of muntijac in order to predict the amount of damage they may cause.

Breeding cycle of the Formosan Reeves muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi micrurus) in northern Taiwan, Republic of China

Au cours des mois de decembre 1988 et janvier 1989, 225 muntjacs de Formose (Muntiacus reevesi micrurus) ont ete examines a I-Lan, Taiwan. L'âge de chaque specimen a ete etabli d'apres le degre d'eruption de ses dents. La repartition des naissances a ete reconstituee indirectement en datant celles-ci, chez les juveniles, a partir de la date de leur mort. Les resultats montrent que des naissances se produisent chaque mois de l'annee, avec un pic de juin a aout en 1988, et deux pics moins accentues de mars a mai 1987, et de novembre 1987 a janvier 1988. Les intervalles entre ces pics (c'est-a-dire 7 et 8 mois) coincident avec la duree de gestation de cette espece, ce qui suggere que la population pourrait avoir un cycle de reproduction partiellement synchronise de moins d'un an.

Reeves' Muntjac Muntiacus reevesi in Britain: their history, spread, habitat selection, and the role of human intervention in accelerating their dispersal

AbstractThe origins, early history, captive populations, spread and habitat preferences of Reeves' Muntjac in Britain are reviewed. It is suggested that much of the published information on the history of Muntjac in Britain is based on misconceptions, and that each subsequent report has continued to promulgate a false impression on the origins, time‐scale and pattern of spread of the species in Britain. Indian and Reeves' Muntjac were introduced to Woburn Park in Bedfordshire within a year of each other, and it appears that the Indian Muntjac did not thrive, at least in the decade following their introduction. How long they survived as a free‐living species in Britain is unclear, but it was probably only a few years. However, there is some evidence to suggest that they might have persisted within the Park at Woburn until 1930.Following the first releases from Woburn in 1901, the numbers of free‐living Reeves' Muntjac in Britain remained low until the 1920s, when populations were largely confined to the woods around Woburn, and possibly also around Tring in Hertfordshire. However, in the 1930s and 1940s there were further deliberate introductions in selected areas some distance from Woburn. As a consequence, the subsequent spread of Reeves' Muntjac was from several main foci, i.e. from the vicinity of Woburn, the Norfolk/Suffolk border, three sites in Northamptonshire, two sites in Oxfordshire and two in Warwickshire. The spread in the second half of this century has been aided by further deliberate and accidental releases, and by these means new populations continue to be established outside the main range. Thus the natural spread has been much less impressive than previously assumed; even in areas with established populations it takes a long time for Muntjac to colonize all the available habitat. Data from a number of areas in Britain suggest that the natural rate of spread is about 1 km a year, which is comparable to other species of deer in Britain.The many introductions have complicated an analysis of the habitat preferences of Reeves' Muntjac, and no clear trends could be found. It would appear that Reeves' Muntjac are less dependent on specific types of habitat than previously believed. Examination of the land‐class preferences using resource selection indices showed that arable land classes were predominantly selected for, and that marginal upland land classes tended to be avoided. Subsequent logistic regression models based on the land classes selected (and to a lesser extent avoided) by Muntjac were able to predict accurately the current distribution of Reeves' Muntjac in Britain, and one of these, together with our knowledge of their history and spread, was used to infer those areas most likely to be colonized by Muntjac in the near future. The greatest potential for range expansion is in Kent and Sussex, and to a lesser extent north into Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire and south Yorkshire, and west into Cheshire and north Shropshire. However, long‐established populations in areas such as Betws‐y‐Coed in Wales show that Muntjac may persist in low numbers in atypical habitats. Future habitat changes, such as the planting of new woodlands, and continued deliberate and accidental releases, are likely to lead to population changes in addition to those predicted by the logistic regression model.

Reproductive biology of male Formosan Reeves' muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi micrurus)

The reproductive biology of the male Formosan Reeves' muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi micrurus) was investigated by observations on both wild and captive populations in Taiwan. The data showed that the testis reaches its maximum size at 2–3 years of age, while spermatogenesis starts in animals 8–10 months old. Hard antlers were cast from late April to late May, and the growth of new antlers was completed by August‐September. Evidence suggested that young individuals born between October and January will acquire the first set of hard antlers during their first August‐September when they are 8–12 months of age. For those born between February and September, however, first antlers are not produced until the second August‐September at 13–21 months old. Both sexes continue to develop the pedicle after birth, but the process stops around four months of age in females. The formation of the first antler in male muntjacs is probably regulated by both the secretion of the testicular androgen and an unidentified environmental factor. Indirect evidence also suggests that male muntjac are fertile year‐round.

Impact of muntjac deer Muntiacus reevesi on EGG-laying sites of the white admiral butterfly Ladoga camilla in a cambridgeshire wood

During the 1980s the number of muntjac deer Muntiacus reevesi increased markedly in Monks Wood National Nature Reserve in Cambridgeshire. Grazing and browsing by the deer have affected the vegetation of the wood. In this paper, we draw attention to an indirect effect of the deer on egg-laying by the white admiral butterfly Ladoga camilla, a locally distributed species of conservation interest. Surveys made in 1973 and 1993 showed that a substantial proportion of potential egg-sites of the white admiral, the lower leaves of honeysuckle Lonicera periclymenum, have been removed by the deer. There has been a general expansion of range and increase in abundance of muntjac in recent years and conservationists should be aware of the possibility of indirect effects on invertebrates.

Sympatric populations of muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus): a comparative analysis of their ranging behaviour, social organization and activity

The ranging behaviour, activity and social organization of sympatric populations of Reeves' muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in a mainly commercial coniferous forest in eastern England were studied by means of radio‐tracking techniques. Muntjac showed no seasonal changes in range size; muntjac bucks had significantly larger ranges than does at all times of the year. For roe deer there were significant seasonal changes in home‐range size; bucks had largest ranges in the winter months and smallest ranges in September‐October, whereas does had largest ranges during January‐February and minimum ranges during May‐June. There was no seasonal change in the number or size of muntjac core areas; bucks always had larger and more numerous core areas than does. Neither was there a seasonal change in the number or size of roe deer core areas; whilst there was no difference in the number of core areas for roe bucks and does, those of bucks were significantly smaller. There was no seasonal change in daily distance travelled by muntjac bucks or does, or roe bucks, but there was a significant seasonal trend for roe does, whose daily distances travelled were longest during January‐February and shortest during May‐June.Spatial organization of muntjac consisted of groups of overlapping doe ranges but exclusive back ranges; these overlapped with one or more groups of doe ranges. During the summer, roe deer buck and doe ranges overlapped, and some doe ranges were shared with other adult does, but buck ranges were exclusive. During the winter, roe deer were more wide‐ranging and mixed more freely. There was no evidence for spatial separation of muntjac and roe deer; minimum convex polygon ranges overlapped and core areas often coincided. Mean annual activity was 69.3 ± 1.5% for muntjac and 56.4 ± 1.8% for roe deer. Mean length of active periods was significantly greater for muntjac than roe deer, and roe deer had significantly longer inactive periods. For muntjac there were peaks of activity at dusk and dawn, with lower levels of activity during the day and night. For roe deer the dawn and dusk peaks were more clearly defined, and at most times of the year nocturnal activity was higher than diurnal activity.These results are discussed in relation to the physiology of the two species and their patterns of space and food utilization, and the evidence for resource partitioning between the two species is evaluated. It was shown that neither muntjac nor roe deer had an effect on the ranging behaviour, activity and social organization of the other species, but that at very high densities muntjac can have an impact on established roe deer populations by changing their pattern of habitat utilization and by locally reducing their numbers.

The Response of Numbers of Bramble Prickles to Herbivory and Depressed Resource Availability

We investigated the variation in prickliness of bramble (Rubus fruticosus agg.) in relation to browsing intensity by fallow deer (Dama dama) and muntjac deer (Muntiacus reevesi) in an Oxfordshire wood, England. On average, 63% of the leaves of stands of bramble plants in the shaded understorey were browsed by deer while in open, unshaded areas 16% of leaves were browsed. The number of prickles cm-' was greater on shaded plants compared with plants in unshaded areas. In both open and shaded areas browsing was more intense on the periphery than in the centre of stands. However, stands of bramble in shaded areas were more accessible. Split-plot factorial experiments were carried out with potted bramble canes to determine the effects of simulated browsing, nutrients and irradiance (light) on bramble growth. The resource availability hypothesis predicts that plants occurring in resource limited environments should invest proportionately more resources in anti-herbivore chemical defences than those found in resource rich environments. We expected this to also be the case for physical defences for plants grown under different regimes of resource availability e.g. prickles of brambles. Removing leaves of bramble plants increased the number of prickles cm-' and also the number of prickles internode'. Fertilisation decreased the number of prickles cm-' but light regime had no significant effect. The investment in prickles measured as percent cane dry weight did not differ with light regime or browsing treatment and was approximately 4%, suggesting that prickles do not represent a significant cost to bramble plants. The increased prickliness of plants growing in the understorey of Wytham Wood is best interpreted as a response to increased browsing intensity rather than to shade i.e. a limit in light (carbon) availability. We suggest that experiments on the behavioural response of deer to variation in prickliness of brambles are required to assess the effectiveness of prickles as a deterrent to herbivory.

Evidence that the seasonal antler cycle of adult Reeves' muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi) is not associated with reproductive quiescence

Data were obtained from post-mortem investigations of 190 culled and road-killed muntjac bucks between 1967 and 1989. Although adult bucks (i.e. those having undergone at least one antler cycle) have a synchronous annual antler cycle, unlike temperate-zone cervids there was little seasonal variation in testis size or activity, or in the size and activity of the epididymidis or accessory reproductive glands. Spermatogenesis was not abated when the antlers were in velvet and year-round fertility was achieved without additional sperm storage. There was little seasonal change in plasma testosterone concentrations in samples obtained from captive and free-living bucks although castration caused antler casting and prevented mineralization. Hence the data are equivocal as to the role of steroids in driving the antler cycle; experimental work on this species would be valuable in examining the mechanisms which regulate the antler cycle.

Chromosomal evolution in cervidae

On the basis of chromosome data obtained on 30 species and 20 subspecies of Cervidae, a report is submitted on the karyosystematics of this family. The primitive karyotype of Cervidae may be inferred to be composed of 35 acrocentric pairs (2 n = 70 FN = 70). During the phyletic evolution of this family different types of chromosome rearrangements were probably selected and the group may have differentiated karyologically into three branches: (1) the Cervinae that fixed a centric fusion resulting in a metacentric pair of autosomes (2 n = 68, FN = 70), as shown by the basic karyotype of Cervus elaphus, and where Robertsonian fusions are the preeminent type of chromosome rearrangement; (2) the Odocoileinae, in which pericentric inversions and Robertsonian fusions were favored, yielding first a submetacentric X and then a submetacentric autosome pair. The most representative karyotype is 2 n = 70, FN = 74 - as in Odocoileus hemionus; and (3) the Muntiacinae, in which centric and tandem fusions were the most common chromosome rearrangements. While Muntiacus reevesi has a karyotype 2 n = 46, FN = 46, the chromosome number drops down to 2 n = 6 in the females of the M. muntjak vaginalis subspecies group and M. rooseveltorum. Therefore, while the karyotypes are conserved within the subfamilies Cervinae and Odocoileinae; the subfamily Muntiacinae appears to be the most chromosomally diversified group. The few karyological data on the Moschus berezovskii suggest that the Moschinae should be placed in a separate family, the Moschidae.

Vocalizations of White-tailed Deer

Twelve different white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) vocalizations were recorded. Ten of these were analyzed with a sound spectrograph. Alarm calls consisted of the snort, given when a deer detected danger, and a bawl, given when a deer was traumatized. Three agonistic calls were recorded. The low grunt was given in low-level agonistic interactions. The grunt-snort, given during more intense dominance interactions, consisted of the low grunt with 1-4 rapid snorts added. The grunt-snort-wheeze consisted of the grunt-snort with the addition of a wheezing exhalation through the nostrils. It was characteristic of dominance interactions among bucks during the breeding season. Four maternal-neonatal sounds were recorded. The maternal grunt was used by does searching for their bedded fawns. The mew was given by fawns and appeared to solicit care from the mother. The bleat was a more insistent care solicitation call and was given when fawns were disturbed or deprived. A nursing whine was given repeatedly while suckling. Mating calls consisted of a tending grunt and the flehmen-sniff. When separated from members of their group, females gave a contact call. INTRODUCTION Ungulate vocal communication has received little scientific attention. Tembrock (1963) noted the fundamental frequency of some calls from several species of ungulates, but Kiley (1972) made the first in-depth measurements of the sounds of domestic cattle, swine and horses. Espmark (1975) used sound spectrograms to analyze the calls of reindeer calves (Rangifer tarandus) and concluded that the calls were distinct among individuals. Other studies of wild or captive ungulates are those by Nikolskii (1975) of red deer (Cervus elaphus), Gunderson and Mahan (1980) of American bison (Bison bison) and Yahner (1980) of muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi). Various vocalizations of the white-tailed deer have been described by several authors (Hatt, 1937; Cowan and Geist, 1961; Faatz, 1976; Hirth and McCullough, 1977). Richardson (1981) and Richardson et al. (1983), however, were the first to systematically describe the calls of whitetails. Their study classified seven vocalizations and described social functions for each. We describe several additional vocalizations and further illustrate the social contexts in which these calls are used. METHODS Vocalizations were recorded from a captive herd of white-tailed deer maintained by the School of Forest Resources of The University of Georgia. Most recording was in a 1.2-ha pen containing mature and immature animals of both sexes. Deer were allowed to interact and breed freely, except for short periods when they were segregated into various paddocks to facilitate certain types of interactions. Additional recordings were made from deer held in an auxiliary 0.4-ha pen and from hand-reared fawns maintained in smaller pens. Social situations associated with each call and additional field observations were used to classify sounds into 12 general types. Recordings were made with a Uher 4000 Report IC reel-to-reel tape recorder using Scotch 1.5-mil polyester magnetic tape 211 and a Sennheiser MKH 816T directional studio microphone or a Supercone EC-7 cardioid condenser microphone. Tape speed was 19 cm/s. Sonagrams were made using a Kay Sona-Graph 6061B spectrum analyzer 1Present address: Health Program Office, Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services, 1317 Winewood Blvd., Tallahassee, FL 32301.

Actinomyces pyogenes Infection in Exotic Bovidae and Cervidae: 17 Cases (1978-1986)

Seventeen cases of Actinomyces pyogenes infections occurred in six species of captive Bovidae and Cervidae from 1978 to 1986. Infected animals included two yellow-backed duikers (Cephalophus sylvicultor), one white-bearded wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus albojubatus), one scimitar-horned oryx (Oryx dammah), eight dorcas gazelles (Gazella dorcas), three Reeve's muntjacs (Muntiacus reevesi), and two reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). Actinomyces pyogenes was isolated ex clusively from external abscesses (mandible, hoof, and other cutaneous sites) in 12 animals and from urine, blood, and abscesses of the kidneys, lungs, and liver in five animals.

A comparison of xylazine and methohexitone for the chemical immobilization of reeves' muntjac ( Muntiacus reevesi)

The advantages and disadvantages of xylazine and methohexitone for immobilizing captive and free-living muntjac were compared. Twenty deer were immobilized with xylazine on 36 occasions, and 19 deer were immobilized with methohexitone on 26 occasions. Xylazine was unpredictable in its effects, particularly with free-living muntjac, and the protracted recovery phase severely restricted its value for field use. In comparison methohexitone was quick acting, the level of anaesthesia induced more controllable, and the recovery phase rapid. For the field biologist, who normally requires a short period of immobilization and a rapid recovery, methohexitone would appear to be preferable to xylazine for use with muntjac. The main disadvantage of methohexitone was that some animals underwent periods of excitatory behaviour during recovery, and so the deer had to be left in an open area clear of obstructions to recover. The extent of the excitatory behaviour could be reduced by avoiding unnecessary stimuli during the recovery period. Xylazine would be more appropriate where calm recovery was essential, such as with captive animals that must recover in a small enclosure or must be transported following sedation.

Tooth eruption in Reeves' muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi) and its use as a method of age estimation (Mammalia: Cervidae)

The sequence of tooth eruption and replacement in Reeves' muntjac was determined from captive animals of known age. Pronounced sexual dimorphism is shown by the permanent upper canine which in the male is large, tusk‐like and is used as a weapon. The upper canine was the first deciduous tooth to be replaced in males, at approximately 21 weeks of age, compared with 53–57 weeks in the female. The permanent mandibular teeth erupted in the order: molars, first and second incisors, premolars, third incisor and canine. The maxillary teeth erupted in the order: first molar, canine (in male), second and third molars, canine (in female), premolars. The full complement of 34 functional permanent teeth was attained by 83–92 weeks of age.

The periods of conception and parturition in feral Reeves' muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi) in southern England, based upon age of juvenile animals

The periods of conception and parturition in feral Reeves' muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi) in southern England, based upon age of juvenile animals

Dominance hierarchy and space use pattern in male captive muntjacs,Muntiacus reevesi

Social behaviour and space use patterns of 15 male muntjacs (Muntiacus reevesi) were studied in a large enclosure in 1979 and 1980. Males often interacted aggressively with each other showing distinct aggressive behaviour patterns. A dominance hierarchy was established and 4 adult males emerged as co-dominant. Movements of these dominant males were confined within small areas which did not overlap with each other and partitioned the enclosure. They defended and maintained the areas by aggressive behaviour and scent marking.

Compound kinetochores of the Indian muntjac. Evolution by linear fusion of unit kinetochores.

The chromosomes of the Indian muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak vaginalis) are unique among mammals due to their low diploid number (2N = 6 female, 7 male) and large size. It has been proposed that the karyotype of this small Asiatic deer evolved from a related deer the Chinese muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi) with a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 46 consisting of small telocentric chromosomes. In this study we utilized a kinetochore-specific antiserum derived from human patients with the autoimmune disease scleroderma CREST as an immunofluorescent probe to examine kinetochores of the two muntjac species. Since CREST antiserum binds to kinetochores of mitotic chromosomes as well as prekinetochores in interphase nuclei, it was possible to identify and compare kinetochore morphology throughout the cell cycle. Our observations indicated that the kinetochores of the Indian muntjac are composed of a linear beadlike array of smaller subunits that become revealed during interphase. The kinetochores of the Chinese muntjac consisted of minute fluorescent dots located at the tips of the 46 telocentric chromosomes. During interphase, however, the kinetochores of the Chinese muntjac clustered into small aggregates reminiscent of the beadlike arrays seen in the Indian muntjac. Morphometric measurements of fluorescence indicated an equivalent amount of stained material in the two species. Our observations indicate that the kinetochores of the Indian muntjac are compound structures composed of linear arrays of smaller units the size of the individual kinetochores seen on metaphase chromosomes of the Chinese muntjac. Our study supports the notion that the kinetochores of the Indian muntjac evolved by linear fusion of unit kinetochores of the Chinese muntjac. Moreover, it is concluded that the evolution of compound kinetochores may have been facilitated by the non-random aggregation of interphase kinetochores in the nuclei of the ancestral species.

Nasadzanie i zrzucanie poroża u dorosłych mundżaków

Chapman D. I. & Chapman N. G., 198 ': The antler cycle of adult Reeves' muntjac. Acta theriol., 27, 8: 107—114 [With 2 Tables & 2 Figs.J The antler cycle of captive, adult Reeves' muntjac, Muntiacus reevesi Ogilby, 1839, of known age has been shown to be annual and seasonal at latitude 52°20'N. Casting of the antlers occurs in May and June and cleaning takes place from mid-August to mid-October, and appears to be irrespective of the deer's date of birth. The mean length of the annual antler cycle is 366 days with a range of 351—389 days. The two antlers are frequently cast and mature on the same day although they may be cast up to 12 days apart and cleaned up to 11 days apart. The mean length of the growing period was 106 days with a range of 79—130 days. No change was detected in either the time or duration of the antler-growing period with increasing age of the deer.