Muntiacus Reevesi Research Articles

Identification primers for sika deer (Cervus nippon) from a sequence‐characterised amplified region (SCAR)

To distinguish sika deer (Cervus nippon) tissue samples from those of sympatric cervids in the southern part of Anhui Province, China, we analysed randomly amplified polymorphic DNA(RAPD) fragments of 12 individual samples from four cervid species: black muntjac (Muntiacus crinifrons), Reeve's muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi), sika deer (Cervus nippon), and tufted deer (Elaphodus cephalophus). Only one primer among the 100 screened produced a clear specific band for identifying DNA of sika deer. We cloned and sequenced 449 bp from this fragment of DNA. We then designed a pair of 18 bp primers (MHL‐U/MHL‐D) according to the sequence, resulting in a 251 bp sequence‐characterised amplified region (SCAR) for sika deer. By combining this pair of SCAR primers with a universal set of mammalian DNA primers, the identification of sika deer tissue samples by a simple common multiplex PCR assay is straightforward, rapid, and reliable. The method will be useful for cervid conservation and cervid bushmeat trade regulation.

Assessing the age of Reeves' muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi) by scoring wear of the mandibular molars

AbstractThe skulls and mandibles of 50 (28 male, 22 female) captive muntjac Muntiacus reevesi of exactly known age and four (two male, two female) of approximately known age were examined for their molar wear patterns. A procedure for scoring was based on earlier published work (Brown & Chapman, 1990, 1991) for fallow Dama dama and red deer Cervus elaphus, respectively. Specimens were also available from 17 male and 13 female wild muntjac whose approximate ages were known. The data show a curvilinear relationship between age and toothwear score, with increasing variability as the score increases. The predicted age and upper and lower limits of 95% prediction intervals are given for captive and wild muntjac deer. The range between upper and lower limits, though greater than was found for fallow and red deer, may still be a useful guide for assessing animals of unknown age.

Population densities and habitat associations of introduced muntjac Muntiacus reevesi and native roe deer Capreolus capreolus in a lowland pine forest

Introduced Chinese muntjac Muntiacus reevesi are increasing in numbers and range within England and are colonising habitats occupied by native roe deer. Effective management of impacts requires knowledge of deer numbers and habitat associations. Few published estimates of muntjac numbers exist and habitat associations of this species are poorly known. Numbers of both muntjac and roe deer were estimated in 185 km 2 of lowland pine forest in eastern England, by standing crop pellet-group counts conducted in 217 plantation stands in February–March 2002. Estimated population density of muntjac (mean ± 95% CI: 64 ± 13 km −2) exceeded that of roe deer (28 ± 6 km −2), giving forest population estimates of 11,900 ± 2370 and 5200 ± 1070, respectively. Sensitivity analysis incorporating different published values of defaecation rate of each species, gave mean density estimates ranging from 59 to 76 muntjac km −2 and 25 to 33 roe deer km −2. The introduced species outnumber native roe deer two- to three-fold in this landscape. For both species, estimated numbers were approximately double subjective population assessments from deer managers, based on frequency of sightings. Both species attained high densities in pre-thicket and mature stands and used open re-stocked stands (aged 0–4 years) less than other growth stages. Muntjac also occurred at substantial densities in thicket and pole stages. Roe deer aggregated on bramble across all habitats, while muntjac were positively associated with bramble in older stands (≥25 years). The two species showed substantial overlap in their use of growth stages (Pianka's index of overlap, O = 0. 93) and individual stands ( O = 0.63). This supports proposals that inter-specific competition may occur between these two species. At a landscape scale, muntjac density was higher in forest blocks with a greater ratio of open habitat perimeter to forest area; roe deer did not show this relationship. For both species, pellet-groups disappeared much faster than published estimates of decay rates previously used in designing pellet accumulation studies.

Phylogenomic study of the subfamily Caprinae by cross-species chromosome painting with Chinese muntjac paints

Chromosomal homologies have been established between the Chinese muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi, MRE, 2n = 46) and five ovine species: wild goat (Capra aegagrus, CAE, 2n = 60), argali (Ovis ammon, OAM, 2n = 56), snow sheep (Ovis nivicola, ONI, 2n = 52), red goral (Naemorhedus cranbrooki, NCR, 2n = 56) and Sumatra serow (Capricornis sumatraensis, CSU, 2n = 48) by chromosome painting with a set of chromosome-specific probes of the Chinese muntjac. In total, twenty-two Chinese muntjac autosomal painting probes detected thirty-five homologous segments in the genome of each species. The chromosome X probe hybridized to the whole X chromosomes of all ovine species while the chromosome Y probe gave no signal. Our results demonstrate that almost all homologous segments defined by comparative painting show a high degree of conservation in G-banding patterns and that each speciation event is accompanied by specific chromosomal rearrangements. The combined analysis of our results and previous cytogenetic and molecular systematic results enables us to map the chromosomal rearrangements onto a phylogenetic tree, thus providing new insights into the karyotypic evolution of these species.

New insights into the karyotypic relationships of Chinese muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi), forest musk deer (Moschus berezovskii) and gayal (Bos frontalis)

To investigate the karyotypic relationships between Chinese muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi), forest musk deer (Moschus berezovskii) and gayal (Bos frontalis), a complete set of Chinese muntjac chromosome-specific painting probes has been assigned to G-banded chromosomes of these three species. Sixteen autosomal probes (i.e. 6–10, 12–22) of the Chinese muntjac each delineated one pair of conserved segments in the forest musk deer and gayal, respectively. The remaining six autosomal probes (1–5, and 11) each delineated two to five pairs of conserved segments. In total, the 22 autosomal painting probes of Chinese muntjac delineated 33 and 34 conserved chromosomal segments in the genomes of forest musk deer and gayal, respectively. The combined analysis of comparative chromosome painting and G-band comparison reveals that most interspecific homologous segments show a high degree of conservation in G-banding patterns. Eleven chromosome fissions and five chromosome fusions differentiate the karyotypes of Chinese muntjac and forest musk deer; twelve chromosome fissions and six fusions are required to convert the Chinese muntjac karyotype to that of gayal; one chromosome fission and one fusion separate the forest musk deer and gayal. The musk deer has retained a highly conserved karyotype that closely resembles the proposed ancestral pecoran karyotype but shares none of the rearrangements characteristic for the Cervidae and Bovidae. Our results substantiate that chromosomes 1–5 and 11 of Chinese muntjac originated through exclusive centromere-to-telomere fusions of ancestral acrocentric chromosomes.

British Naturalists in Qing China: Science, Empire, and Cultural Encounter. By Fa-Ti Fan. [Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press, 2004. ix +238 pp. £32.95. ISBN 0-674-01143-0.

For those who have conducted research on the fauna and flora of China and who have been curious about the “Reeves” in Muntiacus reevesi (the Chinese muntjac) or the “Cunningham” in Cunninghamia lanceolata (the Chinese fir), this book is a great revelation. Many wild plants and animals from China bear scientific names honouring Western naturalists, and this book is the first historical analysis of how Westerners conducted natural history research in China from the mid-18th to the early 20th century. By focusing on British naturalists during a period of dramatic change in the relationship between China and the West, the author has developed a richly textured account of the encounter between vastly different systems of knowledge and representation of the natural world. As such, this work is sure to be of great interest for scholars of the social sciences, cultural studies and the social construction of nature.Drawing on a vast and diverse array of scientific journals, personal correspondence, memoirs and administrative records from the period, the author convincingly ties British natural history research to larger imperial demands for useful information on natural resources in a vast area that was scarcely known by outsiders before the Opium War (1839–1842). The connection between commerce and natural history is exemplified by the English East India Company's interest in botanical, biogeographic and horticultural information on tea trees. Of greater significance still, according to the author, was the way in which knowledge of the natural world was produced through an elaborate network of relationships between British naturalists and Chinese people of all walks of life. The latter included not only the bureaucrats who monitored the already highly circumscribed lives of British expatriates in Canton [Guangzhou] at the beginning of the 19th century, but also collectors, who often made long trips into the interior in search of specimens, and painters, who had to learn an entirely new repertoire in order to provide scientific drawings to British patrons from the factories of Guangzhou to Kew Gardens. Indeed, one of the primary goals of the book is to “explain the formation of scientific practice and knowledge in cultural borderlands during a critical period of Sino-Western relations.” The author sets himself a difficult task: to reconstruct the economic and cultural lineaments of “scientific imperialism” without ignoring “the indigenous people, their motivations, and their actions.” Not only does the book succeed in this effort, it avoids facile demonization of the main Western actors in this drama. Instead, we see a compelling set of portraits of British men of widely differing backgrounds and interests who often made great sacrifices in their quests for scientific knowledge. Generally, these men were keenly aware of the degree to which they relied on local Chinese experts and indigenous knowledge for the success of their own endeavours.

The disappearance of muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) pellet groups in a pine forest of lowland England

Reliable knowledge of the disappearance rate of faecal pellets is essential for converting pellet density to deer density when using standing-crop pellet-group counts. Disappearance of muntjac and roe deer pellet groups was monitored in four growth stages of a pine forest of lowland England over a 15-month period. Time to disappearance of the pellet groups (days) of both species significantly differed between habitats and months; it was shorter in late summer to early autumn and in habitats with more ground vegetation. Muntjac pellet groups disappeared more quickly than roe deer pellet groups. Time to disappearance of roe deer pellet groups was negatively correlated with air and grass temperature in pre-thicket and pre-fell habitats, while time to disappearance of muntjac pellet groups was negatively correlated with frequency of rainfall and positively correlated with the run of wind (air passage over a site within a 24-h period measured in km) in pre-thicket habitats. It is the time of the standing-crop pellet-group counts and the disappearance rate of pellet groups deposited in different months and habitats that determine the appropriate method for conversion of pellet-group density to deer density.

Faecal pellets of Reeves? muntjac, Muntiacus reevesi: defecation rate, decomposition period, size and weight

Captive muntjac fed on vegetation had a daily defecation rate of 7 to 8.2.pellet groups. Even in the cold month of February 97.6% of pellets decayed within 80 days but for 8 other months the range was 4 to 23 days. Emphasis is given to the need for site-specific information when decay rate is required to assess population size from dung counts. The morphology, dimensions, weight and group size of pellets are described as an aid to distinguish them from the faeces of other cervids.

Analysis of mitochondrial DNA protein-coding region in the Yeso Sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis)

In the present study, mitochondrial DNA sequences of the Yeso Sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis) were studied. Specifically, protein-coding genes as mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase subunits (ND1, ND2, ND3, ND4L, ND4, ND5 and ND6), cytochrome c oxidase subunits (CO I and CO III), ATP synthase subunits (ATPase8 and ATPase6) and cytochrome b. Also, phylogenetic analyses on eight mammalian species were performed, including the Muntjac deer (Muntiacus reevesi). The rate of amino-acid substitution was lowest (3.74%) between Yeso Sika deer and Muntjac deer, and the values between Yeso Sika deer and other species (sheep, cattle, horse, pig, mouse, human and chimpanzee) were 6.63%, 7.30%, 12.55%, 13.03%, 23.59%, 24.82% and 25.04%, respectively. Among them, the highest value of divergence was recognized in ATPase8, and the second structure of ATPase8 showed a difference between the Yeso Sika deer and Muntjac deer as a result of the substitution of 34HisTyr and 49ThrIle. In addition, we identified a substitution of an amino-acid sequence (19ThrAla) between the Yeso Sika deer and Yakushima Sika deer (C. n. yakushimae). From these results, ATPase8 was also a variable region in Cervidae.

Habitat selection by sympatric muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in a lowland commercial pine forest

Understanding deer habitat use is important in predictive management of increasing deer populations and in assessing the potential for inter-specific competition, particularly between native and introduced species. Habitat usage by roe deer and introduced Chinese muntjac was studied in a 1200 ha study area within Thetford Forest, a commercially managed coniferous forest in Eastern England. Habitat use was related to forest growth stage and vegetation composition by pellet-group clearance transects conducted every 2 months from March 2000 to March 2001. Higher densities of roe deer were found in young plantations, while muntjac numbers were lower in open restocks and grassy areas and higher in older stands and areas with greater cover of bramble Rubus fruticosa agg. Overall, muntjac showed greater habitat selectivity than roe deer. The overlap between the two species in use of individual stands (single, even-aged management compartments) was significantly lower than overlap in use of growth stages (consisting of many individual stands), suggesting ecological partitioning at finer spatial scales. However, overlap in habitat use as measured by Pianka’s index remained substantial at both scales (mean 0.40±0.16 S.D. for stands and 0.55±0.11 for growth stages). Habitat overlap was greatest in winter when both species aggregate on bramble. There is, therefore, potential for exploitation competition in the event of food scarcity.

Cloning, characterization and physical mapping of three cervid satellite DNA families in the genome of the Formosan muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi micrurus)

Due to their high sequence diversity even among closely related species, satellite DNA sequences can be a useful molecular marker for phylogenetic and taxonomic analyses. To characterize the satellite DNA in the genome of a native muntjac species of Taiwan, the Formosan muntjac, satellite DNA clones representing three different cervid satellite DNA families from this species were isolated and analyzed. Genomic organization study of these satellite DNAs was also undertaken. Three Formosan muntjac satellite DNA clones were obtained and designated as FM-satI (1,391 bp), FM-satII (1,143 bp) and FM-satIV (1,103 bp), and found to share ∼82, 81 and 98% sequence homology with the Chinese muntjac satellite I clone (C5), Indian muntjac satellite II clone (Mmv-0.7) and Chinese muntjac satellite IV clone (MR-1.0), respectively. These three satellite DNA families are organized in a pter←FM-satII–FM-satIV–FM-satI→qter orientation in the centromeric region with satII closely associated with the telomeric sequences. Satellite DNA sequence comparison, in combination with chromosome data concludes that the Formosan muntjac is likely a subspecies of M. reevesi, closely related to the Chinese muntjac. With the kinetochore satellite II DNA co-localizing with the telomeric sequences, the Formosan muntjac chromosomes could be truly telocentric.

Ehrlichiae and ehrlichial diseases in china.

The various ticks collected from different areas of China were examined for the existence of ehrlichial agents by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with genus- or species-specific primers designed on the basis of ehrlichial 16S rRNA genes and sequence analyses. In southern China, E. chaffeensis was detected in Amblyomma testudinarium ticks from infested cattle, Haemaphysalis yeni ticks from hare, and Ixodes ovatus ticks from Muntiacus reevesi. E. canis was identified in Rhipicephalus sanguineus ticks from dogs and Boophilus microplus ticks from goats. A new species of the genus Ehrlichia, closely related to E. chaffeensis, and Anaplasma marginale were found in B. microplus ticks from cattle in Tibet. In northern China, E. chaffeensis was detected in Dermacentor silvarum and I. persulcatus ticks; the granulocytic ehrlichial agents were detected in I. persulcatus ticks from an area where Lyme disease is endemic. Canine ehrlichiosis was found in southern China and E. canis and E. platys were identified in dogs; human ehrlichioses were demonstrated by amplifying the 16S rRNA genes of E. chaffeensis and granulocytic ehrlichial agents from patients' blood specimens. In comparison of 16S rRNA gene sequences, the sequences of E. chaffeensis, E. canis, and E. platys in China were found to be different from that in other countries at certain nucleotide positions. These results reveal that a variety of tick-borne ehrlichial agents and diseases exist in China, and the ehrlichial agents and their tick-vectors are same as or different from that in other countries at species or strain levels.

Impacts of deer herbivory on ground vegetation at Wytham Woods, central England

Between 1974 and 1992 there were declines in bramble ( Rubus fruticosus agg.) and several woodland forbs and an increase in grasses at Wytham Woods. These changes have been explained as effects of increasing deer populations. We set out to test this by establishing exclosure experiments in the summer of 1997. Comparison of permanent vegetation monitoring plots inside and outside the exclosures, showed that forbs tended to increase inside exclosures whilst decreasing in the wider wood, supporting the hypothesis that deer herbivory was responsible for the change. Changes in individual species were not, however, significant and it may take many years for the vegetation in the exclosures to reach a new equilibrium. In contrast to exclosures under the woodland canopy, additional exclosures in a clearing have been rapidly colonized by bramble. It appears there is an interaction between solar radiation and herbivory and the decline of bramble at Wytham may reflect canopy closure as well as deer herbivory. Faecal pellet counts made in Environmental Change Network monitoring plots between August 1998 and April 1999 indicated different habitat use by fallow ( Dama dama ) and muntjac ( Muntiacus reevesi ) deer. Grasslands in proximity to the woodland tended to accumulate proportionally more fallow deer faeces, whilst dense ancient woodland areas tended to accumulate more muntjac faeces. There was, however, little evidence of an association between particular species of plant and differential habitat use by deer.

Impact of muntjac deer (Muntiacus reevesi) at Monks Wood National Nature Reserve, Cambridgeshire, eastern England

Impact of muntjac deer (Muntiacus reevesi) at Monks Wood National Nature Reserve, Cambridgeshire, eastern England

Chemical communication in Eurasian deer (Cervidae): do individual odours also code for attributes?

AbstractEvidence for signal coding for attributes such as age, sex or population of origin, was sought in odour profiles derived from natural secretions of the preorbital gland of red deer Cervus elaphus (n= 26), sika deer C. nippon (15), Chinese muntjac Muntiacus reevesi (23) and Chinese water deer Hydropotes inermis (53); from metatarsal secretions from red deer (n= 35), sika (30), fallow (193) and roe deer Capreolus capreolus (26); and from roe deer interdigital glands (n= 48). Volatiles were eluted from sample materials at body temperature, to restrict analysis to those elements which would occur within the natural odour profile; the different volatile elements were then separated by gas chromatography. Initial results of these analyses were strongly suggestive of some level of signal‐coding for attributes of the signaller. Few secretions (species × gland) contained many volatiles which differed significantly between deer from different populations of origin and, except in the muntjac preorbital and sika deer metatarsal secretions, separation of populations was generally rather poor in formal discriminant function analyses (DFA). However, where no constraint is imposed on the number of volatiles allowed to enter the analysis, secretions from at least one gland accurately discriminated between the sexes in the original sample for most species; separation of sexes was only ineffective for Chinese water deer and fallow deer. Discrimination between deer of different age‐classes was similarly effective in the original sample for red deer preorbital and roe deer metatarsal secretions and fair for preobital secretions of Chinese water deer; unbalanced age‐structure of samples did not permit analysis for muntjac or sika deer. Sometimes the actual predictive power of discrimination was poor; it is notable that this was characteristically associated with small sample sizes and the evidence indicates that scent secretions from most species sampled here offer the potential for coding for at least the sex and age of the signaller. Although chromatographic analysis of odours from some glands reveals consistent differences between odour profiles characteristic of sex, age or population, this does not imply that the signal is deliberately coding for such information, or that the deer use the information available. It is possible that differences in the composition of secretions in relation to age or sex of the signaller, for example, is coincidental or of secondary significance.

Individual signatures in scent gland secretions of Eurasian deer

AbstractEvidence for individuality of odour profile, coding for individual identity, was sought in scent profiles derived from natural secretions of the preorbital gland of red deer Cervus elaphus (n= 26), sika deer C. nippon (15), fallow deer Dama dama (50), Chinese muntjac Muntiacus reevesi (23) and Chinese water deer Hydropotes inermis (53); from metatarsal secretions from red deer (n= 35), sika (30), fallow (193) and roe deer Capreolus capreolus (26), and from roe deer interdigital glands (n= 48). Volatiles were eluted from sample materials at body temperature, to restrict analysis to those elements that would occur within the natural odour signal; the different volatile elements were then separated by gas chromatography. For each species considered, secretions from at least one scent gland were individually distinct and sufficiently complex to code for identity. Within our samples no two individuals produced identical odour profiles; yet in analysis of metatarsal gland secretions of individual fallow deer sampled in successive years, odour signatures of individuals remained consistent over time. The wider potential for individual coding was assessed through calculation of the number of different possible combinations of all volatiles recovered in any species×gland system. Every secretion considered seems to have the potential to provide individually characteristic signals (with the exception of secretions from the fallow deer preorbital gland, which notably contained no odour information under any analytical system). Complexity of signals differed markedly between species as did the gland‐type responsible for production of the most complex or distinctive signal. No simple evolutionary patterns are apparent to account for this variation and we suggest that the form of gland selected for production of a signal carrying information about individual identity is a function of habitat type and sociality.

Individual signatures in scent gland secretions of Eurasian deer

Evidence for individuality of odour profile, coding for individual identity, was sought in scent profiles derived from natural secretions of the preorbital gland of red deer Cervus elaphus (n= 26), sika deer C. nippon (15), fallow deer Dama dama (50), Chinese muntjac Muntiacus reevesi (23) and Chinese water deer Hydropotes inermis (53); from metatarsal secretions from red deer (n= 35), sika (30), fallow (193) and roe deer Capreolus capreolus (26), and from roe deer interdigital glands (n= 48). Volatiles were eluted from sample materials at body temperature, to restrict analysis to those elements that would occur within the natural odour signal; the different volatile elements were then separated by gas chromatography. For each species considered, secretions from at least one scent gland were individually distinct and sufficiently complex to code for identity. Within our samples no two individuals produced identical odour profiles; yet in analysis of metatarsal gland secretions of individual fallow deer sampled in successive years, odour signatures of individuals remained consistent over time. The wider potential for individual coding was assessed through calculation of the number of different possible combinations of all volatiles recovered in any species×gland system. Every secretion considered seems to have the potential to provide individually characteristic signals (with the exception of secretions from the fallow deer preorbital gland, which notably contained no odour information under any analytical system). Complexity of signals differed markedly between species as did the gland-type responsible for production of the most complex or distinctive signal. No simple evolutionary patterns are apparent to account for this variation and we suggest that the form of gland selected for production of a signal carrying information about individual identity is a function of habitat type and sociality.

Home Range, Activity Patterns, and Habitat Relations of Reeves' Muntjacs in Taiwan

We studied home ranges, activity patterns, population density, and food relationships of Reeves muntjacs (Muntiacus reevesi) in the mountains of Taiwan from September 1992 to December 1993 using radiotelemetry, remote cameras, and fecal nitrogen analysis. Average minimum convex polygon home range size was 107.7 ha, and no difference between the sexes was detected. Home ranges and core areas of females overlapped and they were not territorial. Home ranges of males overlapped extensively (>50%), but their core areas overlapped minimally (<5%), suggesting territoriality. Activity patterns of muntjacs differed by sex, and varied daily and seasonally. Females showed particularly low activity in some months. A mark-resight estimate using automatic cameras suggested density on the 4.2-km2 study area was 9.3/km2. Fecal nitrogen levels seasonally changed with vegetation quality similar to temperate-zone ungulates. JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT 64(2):430-441

Ticks parasitic on Muntiacus reevesi and Lepus sinensis in Wuyi Mountains, Fujian, China

Although more than 30 species of ticks have been recorded in Fujian Province, it is not known which one is dominant in the forests of Wuyi Mountains. Muntiacus reevesi Ogilby and Lepussinensis Gray are common wild animals in the mountains and they can be captured by hunters every day. The ticks parasitic on these animals were collected once every ten days from March 1997 to February 1998. Ticks were collected for 20 minutes from M. reevesi and for 10 minutes from L. sinensis each time. The following are the results of the collections.

New phylogenetic perspectives on the Cervidae (Artiodactyla) are provided by the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene.

The entire mitochondrial cytochrome b (cyt b) gene was compared for 11 species of the artiodactyl family Cervidae, representing all living subfamilies, i.e., the antlered Cervinae (Cervus elaphus, C. nippon, Dama dama), Muntiacinae (Muntiacus reevesi), and Odocoileinae (Odocoileus hemionus, Mazama sp., Capreolus capreolus, C. pygargus, Rangifer tarandus, Alces alces); and the antlerless Hydropotinae (Hydropotes inermis). Phylogenetic analyses using Tragulidae, Antilocapridae, Giraffidae and Bovidae as outgroups provide evidence for three multifurcating principal clades within the monophyletic family Cervidae. First, Cervinae and Muntiacus are joined in a moderately-to-strongly supported clade of Eurasian species. Second, Old World Odocoileinae (Capreolus and Hydropotes) associate with the Holarctic Alces. Third, New World Odocoileinae (Mazama and Odocoileus) cluster with the Holarctic Rangifer. The combination of mitochondrial cyt b and nuclear k-casein sequences increases the robustness of these three clades. The Odocoileini + Rangiferini clade is unambiguously supported by a unique derived cranial feature, the expansion of the vomer which divides the choana. Contrasting with current taxonomy, Hydropotes is not the sister group of all the antlered deers, but it is nested within the Odocoileinae. Therefore, Hydropotes lost the antlers secondarily. Thus, the mitochondrial cyt b phylogeny splits Cervidae according to plesiometacarpal (Cervinae + Muntiacinae) versus telemetacarpal (Odocoileinae + Hydropotinae) conditions, and suggests paraphyly of antlered deer.