Multitrial Free Recall Research Articles

The subjective organization of some Zapotec verbs1

As part of an investigation of experimental approaches to the descriptive semantics of some Zapotec verbs, subjects performed multi-trial free recall and judged similarity tasks. From the results of these experiments, indices of semantic similarity were calculated and analyzed. A statistically significant Spearman Rank Correlation between the set of similarity indices from the free recall task and the judged similarity task indicates that there is a similar underlying organization. The results of this research bear directly on critical issues raised by Cole and his associates in their pursuit of an “experimental anthropology of thinking.”

Comparable ratio indices of sequential consistency and subjective clustering in multitrial free recall

Structurally comparable indices of clustering and sequential consistency are described. The former is the ratio index of subjective clustering, and the latter is the ratio index of repetition. Both indices are applicable to the same set of multitrial free-recall protocols, and it is suggested that they may be helpful in clarifying issues arising from contradictory results obtained in studies employing different free-recall paradigms. Correlational limitations of the indices are discussed.

Learning to organize in free recall

A multitrial free recall study assessed the effects of learning-to-learn and learning-to-organize over experimental sessions. An experimental group (Group E) learned five successive lists on 5 successive days, whereas a control group (Group C) learned only two lists, on Day 1 and on Day 5 of Group E training. Results showed a learning-to-learn effect for Group E, but not for Group C. Subjective organization scores increased for both groups, indicating that the learning-to-organize effect reached an asymptote more quickly than the learning-to-learn effect.

Output order and rehearsal in multi-trial free recall

Overt rehearsal protocols were collected in a multitrial free recall task. The relationships between rehearsal and serial position showed only minor changes over trials. The probability of recalling an item was observed to be positively correlated with the amount of rehearsal of the item on all trials. The PRNI effect, the priority in recall of newly recalled items, was observed and explained as resulting from a subject-strategy of giving additional rehearsal emphasis to some of those items which had not been recalled on the preceding test. Thus, the PRNI effect was seen as consistent with a general tendency for subjects to recall items in order of strength from strongest to weakest.

Measure of Similarity between Recall Attempts in Multitrial Free Recall

Of relevance is P, a measure of the extent to which the number of items common to two recalls, exceeds the number expected if all items stood an equal chance of recall on both attempts, as a proportion of the maximum possible deviance from the expected number common to two recalls. It is -1.0 when the minimum number of items is shared, 0.0 when the expected number is common to both recalls, and 1.0 when the maximum number of items is shared. It is analogous to the adjusted ratio of clustering of Roenker, Thompson, and Brown (1971). The derivation of P is as follows: R, the number of items in the list to be remembered r., the number of items recalled on the nth trial ?+I, the number of items recalled on the n + lth trial x, the number of items common to recall trials n and lz + 1 If the probability of recall of items to be remembered is equal for all R items on every trial, the expected number of items common ro two recall trials, E(x), is given by

Effects of presentation order on learning in multitrial free recall

By an organization view, the formation of clusters and consequently the progress of interactive free-recall learning should be affected by the order in which items are presented. The first experiment failed to support an accretion hypothesis, which predicted that presenting the learned items in each cluster before the unlearned items should expedite learning relative to the reverse order. The second experiment showed that even scrambling some clusters while preserving others had relatively little effect, and the effects that were obtained were directly contrary to what had been expected. These results plus other recent related findings suggest that the characteristics of list presentation may have surprisingly little effect on the progress of multitrial free-recall learning.

Analysis of Multitrial Free Recall

Summary A reanalysis of constant and variable input effects in multitrial free recall was undertaken with the use of a new method of measuring organization (ITOV) and a mathematical model of retention-forgetting. Results indicate that ITOV apparently measures a different type of organization than traditional measures. In addition, the trial-to-trial (TTT) model of retention-forgetting quantitatively reveals results about free recall not apparent from traditional analysis.

Meaningfulness, Formal Similarity and Subjective Organization

2 experiments manipulated meaningfulness (M) and formal similarity (FS) in a multitrial free-recall task. Both accuracy and unidirectional and bidirectional subjective organization (SO) were measured. M facilitated both recall, and SO but had a greater effect on bidirectional than unidirectional SO. Low FS lists resulted in higher recall and SO scores than did high FS lists, probably because of greater item discriminability. The data were discussed in terms of current research on organizational processes.

Effective list length and part-whole transfer in first-graders' multitrial free recall

First-gradens' multitrial free recall shows an effective list-length (ELL) effect: an initial recall gain followed by a constant output level that fluctuates in item content. The part-whole transfer paradigm was used to investigate ELL. The ELL effect occurred in whole-list learning regardless of whether the prior task consisted of relevant practice, irrelevant practice, or an unrelated task. Relevant part-list learning resulted in positive transfer which declined from a high to a marginal level over the course of whole-list learning. Other analyses indicated a general deficit in the use of strategies. A response-strength model was used to explain the ELL effect and the transfer results.

Rehearsal and List Structure

During the input phases of a multitrial free recall experiment, Ss were either free to rehearse or required to write the to-be-remembered words as they were presented. Under these input conditions, Ss learned 24-word lists which varied in structure. The lists contained either 2, 4, or 12 categories. The writing procedure caused a decrement in recall in the 2- and 12-category conditions. Hence, restriction of rehearsal was only effective when the list structure placed higher demands on processing time.

Relative effects of acoustic and semantic relatedness on clustering in free recall

An 18-word list was constructed so that each word belonged to both a semantically related category and an acoustically related category. The list was presented, either orally or visually, in a multitrial free-recall task. The results from 40 Ss showed that the organization of recall was dominated by the acoustic properties of the words.

Developmental changes in apportionment of study time among items in a multitrial free recall task

First grade, third grade, and college Ss attempted to memorize a single set of items over the course of 5 trials, each trial consisting of a 45-sec study period followed by a free recall test. On all trials but the first, S was allowed to have available during his study period only half of the total set of items, but was free to select whichever items he wished to include in this half. Third grade and college Ss were significantly more prone than first grade Ss to select for study items not recalled in the immediately preceding recall test. The results suggest that the strategy of deliberately concentrating one's study activities on the less well mastered segments of materials to be learned, like other elementary memory strategies (e.g., rote rehearsal), cannot automatically be assumed to be part of a young child's repertoire of learning techniques.

Some characteristics of retrieval limitation in long-term memory

Two variables were considered as potentially relevant to limitations on retrieval from long-term memory: category size and retrieval cues. The experiment involved a multitrial free recall design where each presentation was followed by three successive recall phases. The proportion recalled per recalled category and the consistency among the specific words recalled on the three phases of each trial (a) were higher for cued than for noncued subjects, and (b) varied as an inverse function of category size. Given a small category and an experimentally defined retrieval strategy, recall was essentially perfect after several trials.

Blocked presentation in multitrial free recall.

Blocked presentation in multitrial free recall.

Output effects in multitrial free recall

The role of the output phase in multitrial free recall was examined in three studies in which each input phase was followed by various numbers of successive output phases. Experiment I demonstrated that after comparable numbers of input phases, intertrial retention in conditions with three, five, or seven successive output phases was superior to that in a standard condition. Using categorized word lists, Experiment II indicated the superior intertrial retention to be due to the recall of more words within categories rather than to the recall of more categories. Experiment III demonstrated that the higher intertrial retention scores did not depend on the overt retrieval of information. It was concluded that opportunities for the attempted retrieval of information produce an increased accessibility of the contents of established higher-order memory units.

Free-recall learning of word lists by prelingual deaf subjects

This study examined the extent of influence which an extremely impoverished acoustic-linguistic system exerted on multitrial free recall of word lists, using 36 prelingual deaf and 36 normal-hearing S s of two age levels. In comparison with the hearing S s, the deaf S s′ recall performance was poor and their span of “echoic” memory tended to be short. Between the two groups, there was a considerable amount of common features in mnemonic organizations, as assessed by Tulving's subjective organization, Bousfield's clustering, and Johnson's hierarchical clustering schemes. The deaf S s were, however, less efficient and showed no developmental improvement in these measures. These results suggest that acoustic-linguistic mediation is also crucial for deaf S s′ free-recall learning of verbal materials.

The effects of synonymity on item recall and sequential ordering in multitrial free recall

A list of 14 synonymous and one of 14 minimally related adjectives were presented to respective groups for 16 multitrial free recall trials. Analyses of the two sets of data failed to reveal noteworthy differences either in item retention or in sequential ordering of recall. The results indicated that Ss given synonyms relied, to an appreciable degree, on the formal characteristics of the words as memory attributes, whereas those given nonsynonymous words responded more to minimal interitem associations. It was hypothesized that the differential effects of synonymity on performance depends mainly on list length.

Are good subjective organizers good paired-associate learners?

It has been demonstrated that Ss high in subjective organization in multitrial free recall are better paired-associate learners than Ss low on the subjective organization variable. The results of that study were interpreted as supporting the idea that the advantage in free recall of the good organizer is the ability to form associations between verbal items more rapidly than the poor organizer. The present study employs the partial correlation technique to explore the relationship between subjective organization, paired-associated learning, and free-recall acquisition. Our analysis indicates that the interpretation of the relationship between subjective organization and paired-associate learning previously offered is invalid and based on a confounding of effects.

Clustering and Sequential Ordering in Multitrial Free Recall as a Function of Meaningfulness

A 15-item CVC list representing 3 categories of meaningfulness (M), High, Medium and Low, was learned for 16 alternating presentation-free-recall trials under conditions of either Immediate (I), or Delayed (D) recall. In the D Condition, a 30-sec. task-filled interval preceded each recall trial. Substantial organization in recall showing both M clustering and sequential ordering occurred primarily in the D Condition. Recall was higher and more stable in the D than in the I Condition. The Low M category was most prominent in contributing to condition differences in recall strategies and performance. Condition differences were attributed to the greater use by I than D Ss of short-term recall strategies. Two possible sources for discriminating the M of a CVC were discussed: (a) the size of its associative hierarchy and (b) its similarity to a word.

Coding, recoding, and decoding of hierarchical information in long-term memory

Mandler's theory (1967, 1968) that information in memory is organized into hierarchical structures was tested in two experiments. The first study showed that S s given multitrial free recall of previously learned information containing an organizational hierarchy specified by E will gradually adopt this structure. In addition, this recoding process involves three stages: (a) the perception of the hierarchy of categories, (b) chunking within a subordinate category, and (c) the establishment of the hierarchical relationship between superordinate and subordinate categories. The development of this structure was shown to be both facilitated and accelerated by a problem-solving task stressing categorical relationships. The second experiment replicated the major finding concerning the development of hierarchical structures in long-term memory and demonstrated that the results could not be accounted for by an associative model.