Multi-label Classification Methods Research Articles

Deep Learning-Based Non-Intrusive Commercial Load Monitoring.

Commercial load is an essential demand-side resource. Monitoring commercial loads helps not only commercial customers understand their energy usage to improve energy efficiency but also helps electric utilities develop demand-side management strategies to ensure stable operation of the power system. However, existing non-intrusive methods cannot monitor multiple commercial loads simultaneously and do not consider the high correlation and severe imbalance among commercial loads. Therefore, this paper proposes a deep learning-based non-intrusive commercial load monitoring method to solve these problems. The method takes the total power signal of the commercial building as input and directly determines the state and power consumption of several specific appliances. The key elements of the method are a new neural network structure called TTRNet and a new loss function called MLFL. TTRNet is a multi-label classification model that can autonomously learn correlation information through its unique network structure. MLFL is a loss function specifically designed for multi-label classification tasks, which solves the imbalance problem and improves the monitoring accuracy for challenging loads. To validate the proposed method, experiments are performed separately in seen and unseen scenarios using a public dataset. In the seen scenario, the method achieves an average F1 score of 0.957, which is 7.77% better than existing multi-label classification methods. In the unseen scenario, the average F1 score is 0.904, which is 1.92% better than existing methods. The experimental results show that the method proposed in this paper is both effective and practical.

A Novel Piano Arrangement Timbre Intelligent Recognition System Using Multilabel Classification Technology and KNN Algorithm.

In this paper, melody and harmony are regarded as the task of machine learning, and a piano arranger timbre recognition system based on AI (Artificial Intelligence) is constructed by training a series of samples. The short-time Fourier transform spectrum analysis method is used to extract the piano timbre characteristic matrix, and the electronic synthesis of timbre recognition is improved by extracting the envelope function. Using the traditional multilabel classification method and KNN (K-nearest neighbor) algorithm, a combined algorithm of these two algorithms is proposed. The experimental results show that the detection rate increases from 61.3% to 70.2% after using the combined classification algorithm. The correct rate also increased from 40.3% to 48.9%, and the detection rate increased to 74.6% when the K value was set to 6. The experimental results show that, compared with the traditional classification algorithm, this algorithm has a certain improvement in recognition rate. Using this system to recognize the timbre of piano arrangement has a high recognition accuracy, which is worthy of further popularization and application.

Multilabel Text Classification Algorithm Based on Fusion of Two-Stream Transformer

Existing multilabel text classification methods rely on a complex manual design to mine label correlation, which has the risk of overfitting and ignores the relationship between text and labels. To solve the above problems, this paper proposes a multilabel text classification algorithm based on a transformer encoder–decoder, which can adaptively extract the dependency relationship between different labels and text. First, text representation learning is carried out through word embedding and a bidirectional long short-term memory network. Second, the global relationship of the text is modeled by the transformer encoder, and then the multilabel query is adaptively learned by the transformer decoder. Last, a weighted fusion strategy under the supervision of multiple loss functions is proposed to further improve the classification performance. The experimental results on the AAPD and RCV1-V2 datasets show that compared with the existing methods, the proposed algorithm achieves better classification results. The optimal micro-F1 reaches 73.4% and 87.8%, respectively, demonstrating the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm.

Optimized convolutional neural network-based comprehensive early diagnosis method for multiple eye disease recognition

The multilabel classification method (MCM) is an active and effective research area in image analysis for the detection of various diseases. MCM provides insights and assistance to ophthalmologists in the detection of eye disease at an early stage. We propose comprehensive age-related eye disease detection at an early stage using retinal fundus images that were taken from the online public dataset. The flower pollination optimization algorithm was used for the optimization of the hyperparameters of the deep convolutional neural network (DCNN), which increased the speed and accuracy of the network. Initially, training was performed using the public datasets. The overall improvement in training accuracy (7.5%) was achieved using the optimized method compared with the nonoptimized method. Then, the output of the DCNN was applied to a multiclass support vector machine for the classification of eye diseases. The performance of the proposed method was compared with that of the other optimization techniques with the help of the standard performance measures, namely accuracy, specificity, sensitivity, precision, and F1-score. Upon comparing the performance of the proposed method with that of the nonoptimized DCNN in terms of performance measures, it had an improvement in the detection accuracy of 9.62% for AMD, 3.57% for glaucoma, 6.59% for normal, 7.71% for DR, and 11.75% for cataract. The obtained results show the effectiveness of the proposed method.

A Novel Label-Guided Attention Method for Multilabel Classification of Multiple Power Quality Disturbances

Multiple power quality disturbance (PQD) contains various single disturbances, so its classification is essentially a multilabel classification task. Due to the complexity of multilabel tasks, the performance of existing multilabel methods for PQD is hard to meet practical needs, which severely restricts the engineering application of multilabel methods. Therefore, in this article, we propose a novel multilabel method named LGAN, which incorporates deep learning and explores the correlations between PQD labels to improve performance. First, 1-D convolutional neural network extracts features automatically from PQD signals. Then, a label-guided attention module is adopted to learn the specific feature representation of each PQD category. Finally, the bidirectional recurrent neural network models the label correlations from the label-related features, and then predicts the final PQD category. Various comparative experiments show that the performance of LGAN is much better than the existing multilabel methods. Additionally, the test using real-time detection platform further verifies the availability of the proposed method.

DEEP LEARNING TRAINING WITH UNBALANCE SAMPLE DISTRIBUTION FOR REMOTE SENSING IMAGE SEGMENTATION

Abstract. The intelligent interpretation of remote sensing images based on deep learning has become a hot spot with the increasing satellite images acquired due to the rapid development of aerospace technology. Sufficient and reasonable distributed samples are essential for the accuracy of deep learning. The spatial distribution of natural features is inhomogeneous in the real world. When people create sample dataset, they often collect within a certain local range, which may bring problems of unbalanced distribution of samples, including the unbalance between training dataset and validation dataset, and the unbalance among different sample categories. This long-tail distribution of samples (i.e., a few classes account for most of the data, while most classes are under-represented) can lead to bias in the training model and make it difficult to ensure accuracy.In this paper we tried to solved the above-mentioned problem in landcover classification with high spatial and spectral resolution (HSSR) remote sensing images. We first adopted an iterative stratification method for multi-label data classification to ensure that both training dataset and validation dataset contain reasonable proportion of landcover classes. Then we proposed a weighted loss algorithm to further strengthen the learning ability of the model for rare categories. Experiments on a large volume HSSR dataset shows that with our methods the accuracy of landcover classification increased by 2%.

A Systematic Literature Review on Multi-Label Classification based on Machine Learning Algorithms

Multi-label classification is a technique used for mapping data from single labels to multiple labels. These multiple labels stand part of the same label set comprising inconsistent labels. The objective of multi-label classification is to create a classification model for previously unidentified samples. The accuracy of multi-label classification based on machine learning algorithms has been a particular study and discussion topic for researchers. This research aims to present a systematic literature review on multi-label classification based on machine learning algorithms. This study also discusses machine learning algorithm techniques and methods for multi-label classification. The findings would help researchers to explore and find the best accuracy of multi-label classification. The review result considered the Support Vector Machine (SVM) as the most accurate and appropriate machine learning algorithm in multi-label classification.

Performance improvement in multi-label thoracic abnormality classification of chest X-rays with noisy labels.

This study aimed at developing a deep learning-based method for multi-label thoracic abnormality classification on frontal view chest X-ray (CXR). To improve the performance of classification, issues of class imbalance, noisy labels and ensemble of networks are addressed in the paper. The experiments were performed on a public dataset called Chest X-ray 14 (CXR14), which includes 112,120 frontal view CXRs from 30,805 patients. We came up with an ensemble learning framework to improve the classification and a noisy label detection method to detect the CXRs with noisy labels. The detected CXRs were reviewed by two board-certificated radiologists in a consensus fashion to evaluate detected noisy labels. The classification was assessed on CXR14 with area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC). Report from the radiologists indicated that detected noisy labels had high possibility to be true positives. A notable improvement from baseline in performance of classification was observed with the ensemble learning framework. After removing the CXRs with detected noisy labels, 8 out of 14 abnormalities improved significantly on CXR14. The suggested framework achieved AUC score of 0.827 on CXR14. The methods of this study boost the classification on CXR with awareness of the label noise. Expanded experimental results show that all of them were able to improve multi-label thoracic abnormality classification performance, respectively. A new state-of-the-art is achieved in this study.

Multi-Label Classification and Explanation Methods for Students’ Learning Style Prediction and Interpretation

The current paper attempts to describe the methodology guiding researchers on how to use a combination of machine learning methods and cognitive-behavioral approaches to realize the automatic prediction of a learner’s preferences for the various types of learning objects and learning activities that may be offered in an adaptive learning environment. Generative as well as discriminative machine learning methods may be applied to the classification of students’ learning styles, based on the student’s historical activities in the e-learning process. This paper focuses on the discriminative models that try to learn which input activities of the student(s) will correlate with a particular learning style, discriminating among the inputs. This paper also investigates several interpretability approaches that may be applicable for the multi-label models trained on non-correlated and partially correlated data. The investigated methods and approaches are combined in a consistent procedure that can be used in practical learning personalization.

Complexity Graph-Based Multilabel Classification Method of Human Action in Rope Skipping Scene

Aiming at the problem of insufficient accuracy of multilabel classification of human action at present, a multilabel classification method of human action in the rope skipping scene is proposed. It realizes feature recognition and classification by collecting human action features in the scene of skipping rope movement and uses RNN to optimize the human action feature recognition algorithm. On the basis of feature recognition, the characteristics of human movement in the rope skipping scene are classified, the confidence map of the key point position is obtained by using the Gaussian modeling method, and the action multilabel classification is realized. Finally, experiments show that the multilabel classification method of human action in rope skipping scene has high accuracy and fully meets the research requirements.

Defect Defection for Intelligent Sewer Inspection with Multi-Label Classification

The sewerage system is held as an important part of city infrastructure, while the pipeline inspection technology based on closed-circuit television system (CCTV) is still offline and by human. This paper focus on the research topic of defect detection for intelligent sewer inspection with multi-label classification. We first use the image preprocessing methods to get the unified datasets, then deploy the framework of deep learning, and propose a multi-label classification method for defect detection. The experimental results show that our approach is a scalable and efficient method, and it will be used in the application systems.

Defect Defection for Intelligent Sewer Inspection with Multi-Label Classification

The sewerage system is held as an important part of city infrastructure, while the pipeline inspection technology based on closed-circuit television system (CCTV) is still offline and by human. This paper focus on the research topic of defect detection for intelligent sewer inspection with multi-label classification. We first use the image preprocessing methods to get the unified datasets, then deploy the framework of deep learning, and propose a multi-label classification method for defect detection. The experimental results show that our approach is a scalable and efficient method, and it will be used in the application systems.

Ensemble-based Methods for Multi-label Classification on Biomedical Question-Answer Data

Background: Question-answer (QA) is a popular method to seek health-related information and biomedical data. Such questions can refer to more than one medical entity (multi-label) so determining the correct tags is not easy. The question classification (QC) mechanism in a QA system can narrow down the answers we are seeking. Objective: This study develops a multi-label classification using the heterogeneous ensembles method to improve accuracy in biomedical data with long text dimensions. Methods: We used the ensemble method with heterogeneous deep learning and machine learning for multi-label extended text classification. There are 15 various single models consisting of three deep learning (CNN, LSTM, and BERT) and four machine learning algorithms (SVM, kNN, Decision Tree, and Naïve Bayes) with various text representations (TF-IDF, Word2Vec, and FastText). We used the bagging approach with a hard voting mechanism for the decision-making. Results: The result shows that deep learning is more powerful than machine learning as a single multi-label biomedical data classification method. Moreover, we found that top-three was the best number of base learners by combining the ensembles method. Heterogeneous-based ensembles with three learners resulted in an F1-score of 82.3%, which is better than the best single model by CNN with an F1-score of 80%. Conclusion: A multi-label classification of biomedical QA using ensemble models is better than single models. The result shows that heterogeneous ensembles are more potent than homogeneous ensembles on biomedical QA data with long text dimensions. Keywords: Biomedical Question Classification, Ensemble Method, Heterogeneous Ensembles, Multi-Label Classification, Question Answering

Comprehensive comparative study of multi-label classification methods

Multi-label classification (MLC) has recently attracted increasing interest in the machine learning community. Several studies provide surveys of methods and datasets for MLC, and a few provide empirical comparisons of MLC methods. However, they are limited in the number of methods and datasets considered. This paper provides a comprehensive empirical investigation of a wide range of MLC methods on a wealth of datasets from different domains. More specifically, our study evaluates 26 methods on 42 benchmark datasets using 20 evaluation measures. The evaluation methodology used meets the highest literature standards for designing and conducting large-scale, time-limited experimental studies. First, the methods were selected based on their use in the community to ensure a balanced representation of methods across the MLC taxonomy of methods within the study. Second, the datasets cover a wide range of complexity and application domains. The selected evaluation measures assess the predictive performance and efficiency of the methods. The results of the analysis identify RFPCT, RFDTBR, ECCJ48, EBRJ48, and AdaBoost.MH as the best-performing methods across the spectrum of performance measures. Whenever a new method is introduced, it should be compared with different subsets of MLC methods selected according to relevant (and possibly different) evaluation criteria.

Secure tumor classification by shallow neural network using homomorphic encryption

BackgroundDisclosure of patients’ genetic information in the process of applying machine learning techniques for tumor classification hinders the privacy of personal information. Homomorphic Encryption (HE), which supports operations between encrypted data, can be used as one of the tools to perform such computation without information leakage, but it brings great challenges for directly applying general machine learning algorithms due to the limitations of operations supported by HE. In particular, non-polynomial activation functions, including softmax functions, are difficult to implement with HE and require a suitable approximation method to minimize the loss of accuracy. In the secure genome analysis competition called iDASH 2020, it is presented as a competition task that a multi-label tumor classification method that predicts the class of samples based on genetic information using HE.MethodsWe develop a secure multi-label tumor classification method using HE to ensure privacy during all the computations of the model inference process. Our solution is based on a 1-layer neural network with the softmax activation function model and uses the approximate HE scheme. We present an approximation method that enables softmax activation in the model using HE and a technique for efficiently encoding data to reduce computational costs. In addition, we propose a HE-friendly data filtering method to reduce the size of large-scale genetic data.ResultsWe aim to analyze the dataset from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) dataset, which consists of 3,622 samples from 11 types of cancers, genetic features from 25,128 genes. Our preprocessing method reduces the number of genes to 4,096 or less and achieves a microAUC value of 0.9882 (85% accuracy) with a 1-layer shallow neural network. Using our model, we successfully compute the tumor classification inference steps on the encrypted test data in 3.75 minutes. As a result of exceptionally high microAUC values, our solution was awarded co-first place in iDASH 2020 Track 1: “Secure multi-label Tumor classification using Homomorphic Encryption”.ConclusionsOur solution is the first result of implementing a neural network model with softmax activation using HE. Also, HE optimization methods presented in this work enable machine learning implementation using HE or other challenging HE applications.

Multi-label classification of feedbacks

This work deals with educational text mining, a field of natural language processing applied to education. The objective is to classify the feedback generated by teachers in online courses to the activities sent by students according to the model of Hattie and Timperley (2007), considering that feedback may be at the levels task, process, regulation, praise and other. Four multi-label classification methods of the data transformation approach - binary relevance, classification chains, power labelset and rakel-d - are compared with the base algorithms SVM, Random Forest, Logistic Regression and Naive Bayes. The methodology was applied to a case study in which 11013 feedbacks written in Spanish language from 121 online courses of the Law degree from a public university in Mexico were collected from the Blackboard learning manager system. The results show that the random forests algorithms and vector support machines will have the best performance when using the binary relevance transformation and classifier chains methods.

Tree-based dynamic classifier chains

Classifier chains are an effective technique for modeling label dependencies in multi-label classification. However, the method requires a fixed, static order of the labels. While in theory, any order is sufficient, in practice, this order has a substantial impact on the quality of the final prediction. Dynamic classifier chains denote the idea that for each instance to classify, the order in which the labels are predicted is dynamically chosen. The complexity of a naïve implementation of such an approach is prohibitive, because it would require to train a sequence of classifiers for every possible permutation of the labels. To tackle this problem efficiently, we propose a new approach based on random decision trees which can dynamically select the label ordering for each prediction. We show empirically that a dynamic selection of the next label improves over the use of a static ordering under an otherwise unchanged random decision tree model. In addition, we also demonstrate an alternative approach based on extreme gradient boosted trees, which allows for a more target-oriented training of dynamic classifier chains. Our results show that this variant outperforms random decision trees and other tree-based multi-label classification methods. More importantly, the dynamic selection strategy allows to considerably speed up training and prediction.

Multilabel Classification Methods for Human Activity Recognition: A Comparison of Algorithms.

As the world’s population is aging, and since access to ambient sensors has become easier over the past years, activity recognition in smart home installations has gained increased scientific interest. The majority of published papers in the literature focus on single-resident activity recognition. While this is an important area, especially when focusing on elderly people living alone, multi-resident activity recognition has potentially more applications in smart homes. Activity recognition for multiple residents acting concurrently can be treated as a multilabel classification problem (MLC). In this study, an experimental comparison between different MLC algorithms is attempted. Three different techniques were implemented: RAkEL, classifier chains, and binary relevance. These methods are evaluated using the ARAS and CASAS public datasets. Results obtained from experiments have shown that using MLC can recognize activities performed by multiple people with high accuracy. While RAkEL had the best performance, the rest of the methods had on-par results.

BFENet: A two-stream interaction CNN method for multi-label ophthalmic diseases classification with bilateral fundus images

Background and objectiveEarly fundus screening and timely treatment of ophthalmology diseases can effectively prevent blindness. Previous studies just focus on fundus images of single eye without utilizing the useful relevant information of the left and right eyes. While clinical ophthalmologists usually use binocular fundus images to help ocular disease diagnosis. Besides, previous works usually target only one ocular diseases at a time. Considering the importance of patient-level bilateral eye diagnosis and multi-label ophthalmic diseases classification, we propose a bilateral feature enhancement network (BFENet) to address the above two problems. MethodsWe propose a two-stream interactive CNN architecture for multi-label ophthalmic diseases classification with bilateral fundus images. Firstly, we design a feature enhancement module, which makes use of the interaction between bilateral fundus images to strengthen the extracted feature information. Specifically, attention mechanism is used to learn the interdependence between local and global information in the designed interactive architecture for two-stream, which leads to the reweighting of these features, and recover more details. In order to capture more disease characteristics, we further design a novel multiscale module, which enriches the feature maps by superimposing feature information of different resolutions images extracted through dilated convolution. ResultsIn the off-site set, the Kappa, F1, AUC and Final score are 0.535, 0.892, 0.912 and 0.780, respectively. In the on-site set, the Kappa, F1, AUC and Final score are 0.513, 0.886, 0.903 and 0.767 respectively. Comparing with existing methods, BFENet achieves the best classification performance. ConclusionsComprehensive experiments are conducted to demonstrate the effectiveness of this proposed model. Besides, our method can be extended to similar tasks where the correlation between different images is important.

Two‐stage‐neighborhood‐based multilabel classification for incomplete data with missing labels

In recent years, it has been difficult for multilabel classification to obtain complete multilabel data in real-world applications, and even a large number of labels for training samples are randomly missed. As a result, the classification task of incomplete multilabel data with missing labels faces formidable challenges. This paper presents a two-stage-neighborhood-based multilabel classification method for incomplete data with missing labels in neighborhood decision systems. First, to solve the problem of selecting the neighborhood radius manually, as well as balancing the samples in the neighborhood, the neighborhood radius based on the feature distribution function is defined, and the differences and similarities between samples through the identifiable and indiscernible matrices are, respectively, computed. Then, a restoration method for missing feature values is proposed for use in the first stage. Second, to consider the nonlinear relationship among features, a neighborhood-based fuzzy similarity relationship between samples is investigated based on the Gaussian kernel function. By integrating the fuzzy similarity relationship matrix, label-specific feature matrix, and label correlation matrix, an objective function based on the regression model is presented, the optimal solutions to the label-specific feature and label correlation matrices based on the gradient descent strategy are provided, and a new multilabel classification method with missing labels is developed during the second stage. Finally, two-stage multilabel classification algorithms are designed. Experiments on 18 multilabel data sets demonstrate that our designed algorithms are effective not only for recovering missing feature values, but also for improving the classification performance of data with missing labels.