Mud Bricks Research Articles

Ancient mud bricks show adobe’s foundations 5,000 years ago

Ancient mud bricks show adobe’s foundations 5,000 years ago

The [dis]position of Albanian Adobe Constructions. The potential of earth as a traditional building material in the future

In traditional societies, building construction was related with local materials available in situ. In Albania, traditional architecture is especially built with adobe in the lowest areas, especially near the coast and with stone especially in the mountains. The scarce resources of stone near the coast and the facility to build with mud bricks, has made possible its implementation both in urban and rural dwellings. The greatest number of adobe constructions belongs to the Ottoman period and lasted until the first decades of nineties. This paper focuses in analyzing the design principles and the constructional elements of the traditional earthen architecture in Albania. Through the documentation and study of the local traditional adobe construction systems, it would be more interesting to understand its potential use today. This paper’s analyses are based on large-scale in-situ research made with students in the framework of the restorations course at Polis university, which includes field survey, archival research, detailed photographic recording of the remaining traditional buildings mainly in central Albania and literature review of the main causes of deterioration of adobe structures. Analysis of spatial distribution of housing typologies, basic structural elements, and different construction systems influenced by the geographical position highlight specific earth architecture techniques used in different traditional building typology. Based on the collected data and critical analyses, this paper will provide some useful suggestions concerning the typology, form, and the construction techniques of traditional earth buildings, and it will guide us in finding some techniques currently used for the restoration and preservation of traditional adobe buildings and the use of new earth buildings construction in particular locations.

A sustainable approach for the utilization of PPE biomedical waste in the construction sector

One of the major challenges the COVID-19 pandemic has posed is the disposal of huge volumes of biomedical waste. It is the need of the hour to find out methods to handle the waste generated and explore novel and sustainable ways for their disposal. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is the main medical waste generated during the pandemic and may continue to accumulate in the post-pandemic era. This paper portrays a study on generating construction material composites from PPE waste along with the sand fillers. The work has been carried out with two different sand, River sand and Manufactured sand, in three different filler ratios. The different properties such as tensile, compression, and flexural strength of the prepared composite are detailed and compared with the existing construction materials. Durability properties such as acid resistance and moisture absorption have been studied to validate the efficacy of the developed material in the construction sector. It is observed that the PPE waste composite displays superior performance in compression, tension and flexure while compared to the other construction materials like mud bricks and cement blocks. The water absorption and acid degradation are minimal, as a result, its strength is not affected after exposure to such adverse conditions. The thermal conductivity of the composite is found to be less compared to the conventional concrete which makes it an ideal choice in tropical areas as thermal insulation material. Moving forward, this study is expected to set a new sustainable approach to utilize biomedical plastics waste to substitute cement-based construction material and hence aid a negative carbon cycle.

Sustainable construction for affordable housing program in Kabul

Afghanistan suffers from four decades of war, caused a massive migration of the rural population to the cities. Kabul was originally designed for 1,5 million people, where now 5 million people live. The importation of modern western styles housing for rapid reconstruction reveals apparent cultural conflict and significant environmental footprint. The new constructive cultures for sustainable reconstruction should necessary consider the use of local materials combined with modern technologies. Earthen architecture underlies the embodiment of Afghanistan architecture. The aim of this research is to revisit traditional afghan earthen construction with the tools of industrial modernity. Three soils of the Kabul region were first characterized. Then, sun-dried mud brick and compressive earth block, with and without stabilization have been prepared and tested in the laboratory to develop the most suitable earth construction element which is cost effective and easily available compared to the imported modern products.

“An Excellent Fortress for His Armies, a Refuge for the People”: Egyptological, Archaeological, and Biblical Studies in Honor of James K. Hoffmeier

“An Excellent Fortress for His Armies, a Refuge for the People”: Egyptological, Archaeological, and Biblical Studies in Honor of James K. Hoffmeier

MODULAR CERAMIC SEPARATIONS IN INTERIOR DESIGN

With the change in the industrial world from the Neolithic world to the present, and the increase in the diversity in application methods; the subjects covered by the ceramics have increased in parallel with the conditions . It is possible to divide into three main groups as those that qualify as historical findings and indicators, plastic arts and industrial ceramics. Although they are considered as different fields, architecture and ceramics are in close dialogue. The use, which started with mud brick for the first time as a building material in ceramics, continues today by being present in many components of architecture. It is a rare and precious situation in terms of architecture that the preferred ceramic, thanks to its high utility/performance ratio, is not only a building element, but also adds a pure creation and artistic value. Influence of human is important in the organization of contemporary space in architecture. When the user requirements are included in the design problem as concrete and abstract, the concepts of modularity and aesthetics appear. The modular design of the reinforcement elements enables flexible design by making it possible to change the number of units according to the place to be practiced, which is compatible with the separation works. For space dividers made of ceramic units, the primary consideration is to add aesthetic value to the space of which it is a part, while meeting the requirements as a function. In this article study; The relationship between ceramics, which is a competent material in the fields of industry and art, and architecture is examined through the building envelope and space-dividing examples, and it is aimed to emphasize that qualified and original building and space arrangements are possible as a result of the joint work of different disciplines. Keywords: Interior design, ceramic separations, room dividers, modular

A Comparative Analysis of Thermal Performance, Annual Energy Use, and Life Cycle Costs of Low-cost Houses Made with Mud Bricks and Earthbag Wall Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa

Given the high demand for low-cost housing by the low-income earners, coupled with the tropical climate experienced in sub-Saharan Africa, new-built housing stock needs utmost attention to cost, durability, and efficiency. With the walls accounting for a substantial proportion of the total building cost, choice of a wall system for use in building construction is critical. This choice usually depends on how durable, comfortable, ecological, and economical a given system is, to meet both the quality standards and low-cost aspects of housing. Although the earthbag building system allows for the construction of strong, affordable, and sustainable housing, it is not widely known. As such, its sustainable characteristics have gone unrecognised throughout the building industry. This paper examines and compares the thermal properties and total Life Cycle Costs (LCC) of earthbag walls with the commonly used burnt brick walls - based on the Degree-Days method and Life Cycle Costing analyses of building walls located in one of the hottest regions in Uganda. In-situ measurements of temperature and heat flux were conducted in accordance with ISO 9869 and the annual energy requirements obtained. The total LCC were calculated based on the initial construction costs and annual energy costs attributed to the building wall systems. Earthbags housing was found to be thermal-physically better than the brick wall with a lower U-value resulting in lower annual energy requirements and a huge saving in annual energy costs of up to 83.2%. This saving, coupled with low initial construction costs made the earthbag unit 68.7% cheaper than the burnt brick unit over a 30-year period. Therefore, this study findings suggest earthbag walling system as an economically viable and technically feasible low-cost construction option for rural areas and low-incomers earners’ housing in warm climatic conditions, a characteristic of sub-Saharan countries – so as to promote regional development.

Archaeological Investigation and Hazard Assessment Using Magnetic, Ground-Penetrating Radar, and GPS Tools at Dahshour Area, Giza, Egypt

An archeological study using magnetic and ground-penetrating radar methods has been performed at the Dahshour region (Giza, Egypt), where various covered structures have not been found because of the long coercion of the zone under the military specialists. Dahshour is the southern extension of the Saqqara and Giza Pyramids plateau, around 25 km south of Cairo. The area is known for its colored pyramids—the white, red, and black pyramids, and the famous Bent Pyramid. Four investigation sites were chosen around the Bent Pyramid complex. The geophysical investigation has revealed the presence of some buried structures made up of mud bricks such as tombs, mud-brick walls, causeway, and remains of an ancient temple. Numerous limestone blocks were also detected. The study indicates the possible existence of an older valley temple made up of mud bricks and confirms the existence of another causeway that led to the Nile Valley. To protect the Egyptian heritage around this vital area, a detailed computation of the current crustal stress/strain state has been performed by taking into account all the available GPS observations. Achieved results indicated that the southern and the southeastern sectors of the investigated area are currently accumulating strain, and this means that there is a possibility for future earthquakes to occur around this vital archaeological area. Buried structures are preserved by confinement in the burial materials like a large mold. However, external load or stress can still cause damage. Therefore, during excavation, the stress should be reduced to avoid wall collapsing and structure damage. Therefore, it is recommended to start excavation from the stress direction from the southern side.

: دراسة تحليلية مقارنة للتطور التکنولوجي في تشکيل کوحدة البناء ) الطوبة من الطين النيئ ثم الطوب الإلکتروني ا ولذکي إلى طباعة المبنى بتکنولوجيا الطباعة ثلاثية الأبعاد(

Architecture is like a mirror that reflects the human technologies that ’s been used throughout the ages. It is the official spokesman for the human-being eras. Human hand was the first technology used in the formation of the clay building unit then the ax that he was planting with is the same that used to form a building unit. Then using the strength of the animal muscular. The architecture of a particular era is nothing but a reflection of the spirit of this era, as each age has its own distinct technology from ancient times until now. The research discussed the definition of technology, then the technology of making mud bricks from clay or what may be called green bricks. The environmental and functional characteristics and objectives of the primitive building unit from raw clay, and studying its defects and features. Then with the transition to the most advanced technology, which is the formation and manufacture of the building unit from red bricks. The research also dealt with the technology of using smart bricks, explaining its internal structure, and discussing its advantages. The viewpoint of architects on building technology with smart bricks as a modern building unit was discussed. Electronic as a development of smart bricks, studying 3D printing as a technology to create the whole building in one unit, and mentioning the materials used in the 3D printer as well as its various types. In addition to the technical installations of the building with this technology, the advantages and disadvantages of this technology and the programs used in it with mentioning some examples that have been printed and created entirely with technology 3D printing is discussed. Like the future office in Dubai, a pedestrian bridge in Spain, and finally, a comparison between primitive and traditional technologies such as raw red bricks, smart bricks and electronic bricks and between 3D printing as the most recent construction method in the world so far is made. Then concluding the results of the research and citing references.

UBC Excavations of the Roman Villa at Gerace, Sicily: Results of the 2018 Season

A fifth season of excavation at the late Roman rural estate of Gerace (Enna province, Sicily) took place in 2018. A rectangular kiln of the fifth century ad, partially excavated in 2017, was confirmed as having internal walls of mud brick, hardened by successive firings. It was reduced in size in a secondary period. Investigation was conducted on another of the vertical shafts, extraordinarily hacked through the thickness of parts of the mud-brick walls of this kiln in the sixth century, in order to create rudimentary furnaces, but their function remains unknown. In the bath-house of ca. 380 ad, the rest of the frigidarium, partly investigated in 2017, was uncovered. The geometric mosaic floor has an inscription on all four sides, uniquely so in the Roman Empire; it names the estate as the praedia Philippianorum. Roundels on the mosaic include monograms of ‘Asclepiades’ and ‘Capitolini’, both also named in the inscription. The text of the inscription is discussed, and possible interpretations of what it might mean are offered. Excavation found that the walls of the cold room were never finished and a horseshoe-shaped cold pool on its north side was never installed, suggesting that the baths were left incomplete, although they were used. Further evidence was found of serious earthquake damage that occurred in the second half of the fifth century. It may have happened at night if burn marks on one part of the mosaic come from dislodged torches; they and a glass lamp suggest that night bathing was practised, in line with its increasing popularity elsewhere in late antiquity. An attempt was made to repair the baths after the earthquake, but this was aborted while still in full swing, and the baths were abandoned. A small part of the early Byzantine settlement which replaced the elite buildings on the estate soon afterwards, was excavated nearby; three phases were identified, belonging to the sixth and seventh centuries. Five appendices present evidence of kiln temperature, animal bones, carbonized seeds, and wood charcoal, as revealed during the 2018 season, as well as a selection of pottery from key deposits which aids the dating of individual phases.

Visceral leishmaniasis outbreaks in Bihar: community-level investigations in the context of elimination of kala-azar as a public health problem

BackgroundWith visceral leishmaniasis (VL) incidence at its lowest level since the 1960s, increasing attention has turned to early detection and investigation of outbreaks.MethodsOutbreak investigations were triggered by recognition of case clusters in the VL surveillance system established for the elimination program. Investigations included ascertainment of all VL cases by date of fever onset, household mapping and structured collection of risk factor data.ResultsVL outbreaks were investigated in 13 villages in 10 blocks of 7 districts. Data were collected for 20,670 individuals, of whom 272 were diagnosed with VL between 2012 and 2019. Risk was significantly higher among 10–19 year-olds and adults 35 or older compared to children younger than 10 years. Outbreak confirmation triggered vector control activities and heightened surveillance. VL cases strongly clustered in tolas (hamlets within villages) in which > 66% of residents self-identified as scheduled caste or scheduled tribe (SC/ST); 79.8% of VL cases occurred in SC/ST tolas whereas only 24.2% of the population resided in them. Other significant risk factors included being an unskilled non-agricultural laborer, migration for work in a brick kiln, living in a kuccha (mud brick) house, household crowding, habitually sleeping outside or on the ground, and open defecation.ConclusionsOur data highlight the importance of sensitive surveillance with triggers for case cluster detection and rapid, careful outbreak investigations to better respond to ongoing and new transmission. The strong association with SC/ST tolas suggests that efforts should focus on enhanced surveillance in these disadvantaged communities.Graphical

THE REFLECTION OF CULTURAL ASPECTS ON VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE: CASE OF BURHANLI VILLAGE, CEYHAN

Aim: The financial, social and cultural development in urban areas encouraged people to move out from rural areas which resulted in the extinction of vernacular architecture shaped as a result of cultural background. The main aim of this study is to examine how cultural aspects are reflected to spaces in vernacular architecture. Method: Burhanlı Village located in Ceyhan/Adana is chosen as the case study, because of its unique settlement character where yörük culture can still be seen. Within the scope of the study, historical development of Burhanlı village is examined, survey drawings of 16 traditional houses are prepared and interviews with local residents are undertaken in order to understand how culture is reflected in inner and outer spaces. Findings: It is ascertained that building stock in the village is mostly comprised of two storey houses, where ground floors are used as stables or warehouses, the upper floors include spaces for daily living. In the houses where sofa is the main element of the plan organization, wood, mud brick or stone was used as building material and it is revealed that traditional houses are under threat because of poor quality intervention. Conclusion: It is determined that culture was reflected more in details in inner and outer spaces rather than spatial organization and that these unique qualities have to be preserved.

Mine Waste‐Based Next Generation Bricks: A Case Study of Iron Ore Tailings, Red Mudand GGBS Utilization in Bricks

Utilization of mine wastes as a building material in the construction industry surmises to environmental and sustainable concepts in civil engineering.The potential environmental threat posed by mining wastes, as well as a growing societal awareness of the need to effectively treat mining wastes, has elevated the subject importance.The present research proposes a method of producing bricks that is both cost effective and environmentally benign. The research is based on the geopolymerization, known to save energy by obviating high‐temperature kiln firing and lowering greenhouse gas emissions. The methodology encompasses the mixing of red mud and iron ore tailings in the range of 90% to 50% with a decrement of 10% with GGBS in the range of 10% to 50% with an increment of 10%. The raw materials and the developed composites have been tested as per Indian and ASTM standards.In addition to tests pertaining to the physical and mechanical properties, XRF, XRD, and SEM tests have been performed for examining various related issues. Based on the result analysis, the compressive strength values showed noticeable differences in case of IOT and red mud bricks with IOT‐based bricks showing better compressive strengths.

Strategic design of wall envelopes for the enhancement of building thermal performance at reduced air-conditioning costs

A strategy is proposed for the design of wall envelopes to improve unsteady thermal performance in non-air-conditioned buildings and to reduce energy costs in air-conditioned buildings. The thermophysical properties of building materials (e.g., burnt bricks, mud bricks, laterite stone, cinder concrete, and expanded polystyrene) were measured experimentally using a thermal analyzer. A total of 28 combinations for composite walls were designed with expanded polystyrene as an insulation material based on seven criteria and were subjected to 8 different external surface heat transfer coefficients, which were tested for unsteady thermal performance parameters and air-conditioning cost-saving potential. In this paper, unsteady thermal transmittance obtained from admittance method has been employed to compute cost saving potential of air-conditioning for the various wall envelopes. The use of C–H5 design at a 2 m/s wind speed was found to increase the decrement lag of burnt brick, mud brick, laterite stone, and cinder concrete composite wall envelopes by 48.1%, 49.0%, 59.5%, and 47.0%, respectively, relative to the common wall design (C–H1) in non-air-conditioned buildings. The laterite with a C–H5 design offers the highest annual energy cost savings (1.71 $/m2 at 2 m/s), the highest life cycle cost savings (18.32 $/m2 at 2 m/s), and the lowest payback period (4.03 yrs at 2 m/s) in all tested building materials for air-conditioned buildings. The overall results of this study are expected to open new paths to deliver simple design strategies for energy-efficient buildings.

Influence of fungi: Trichoderma viride on properties of mud brick

In the field of microbial biomineralization, much of the scientific concentration is focused on processes done by pro karyotes, especially bacteria, although it is also known that fungi are involved in biochemical cycles in many ways. The objective of this work is to find a new self-healing idea during which fungi is used as a crack-healing agent to enhance calcium carbonate precipitation. The experimental results showed that Trichoderma viride has much more growth in basic medium. Also this fungi have shown calcium carbonate precipitation. XRD plots confirm the presence of calcite in the precipitation. Hence the implementation of fungi in Mud bricks resulted in increase in properties of bricks. SEM and EDAX confirms the presence of calcite crystals which is responsible for filling of pores in mud bricks.

Transforming waste disposals into building materials to investigate energy savings and carbon emission mitigation potential.

This work aims to enhance the energy cost-saving potential of conventional mud-brick by including natural waste materials as insulators. The solid waste materials considered for mud bricks are rice husk, sawdust, coir pith, and fly ash. This work investigates the structural and thermoeconomic performance of four types of insulated mud bricks and three roofs of ferrocement, clay, and ceramic materials. The thermal properties of walls and roofs were measured as per ASTM D 5334 standards. The utilization of solid waste in mud bricks enhanced the structural properties and air-conditioning cost-saving potential of the mud bricks. The results also showed the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions with the usage of insulated bricks for buildings. The rice husk mud-brick wall showed better results of higher time lag, lower decrement factor, higher air-conditioning cost-savings, acceptable payback periods, and higher annual carbon mitigation values of 11.11 h, 0.24, 1.74 $/m2, 1.17 years, and 33.35 kg/kWh, respectively, among all the studied multilayer walls. Among the roofs, clay tile roof showed a lower decrement factor (0.989), higher time lag (0.73 h), higher air-conditioning cost-savings (2.58 $/m2), lower payback periods (0.61 years), and higher annual carbon mitigation (21.73 kg/kWh). The results are in designing eco-friendly and energy-efficient envelopes for buildings.

El Área 11 de Giribaile. Estructura arquitectónica y materiales de construcción de un almacén ibérico de los siglos IV-II a. C.

El Área 11 se ubica junto a una de las puertas laterales de acceso a la ciudad de Giribaile. El contexto de destrucción por incendio ha permitido conservar un conjunto de evidencias de materiales de construcción, clavos, carbones e improntas de vegetación, básicamente, que permiten plantear una hipótesis de restitución de la cubierta del almacén. En el Área 11 también se ha documentado una importante cantidad de adobes o ladrillos conformados en frío, fabricados con un alto contenido de cal, que abre un debate sobre su posible localización en las paredes e, incluso, con función de solería de un segundo piso. Del interior del almacén se ha recuperado un importante conjunto de ánforas y también elementos relacionados con otras actividades domésticas, entre ellas un conjunto de fusayolas y pesas para tejer.

Space bricks: From LSS to machinable structures via MICP

In this work, we show that Microbial Induced Calcite Precipitation (MICP) can be used for making consolidated structures – space bricks – using lunar soil simulant (LSS). Sporosarcina pasteurii was used as a bacterial strain to initiate MICP process via ureolytic pathway. An admixture of a naturally occurring biopolymer (guar gum) and a structural reinforcement material (glass fibre) was used to enhance the mechanical properties of the bio-consolidated bricks. When supplemented with guar gum, the compressive strength of the resulting bricks was found to be significantly higher – by nearly six-fold – making them comparable to commercially used mud bricks. The addition of glass fibre reduced this strength a little, but had the benefit of making the space bricks machinable on a conventional lathe. This latter fact enabled the fabrication of precise and free-form shapes post-consolidation, without the need for specialized casting molds or dies. Details of the MICP process were investigated using field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses. The route demonstrated here holds great potential for making strong structures in extra-terrestrial habitats, while adhering to the principles of in situ resource utilization.

A microstructure exploration and compressive strength determination of red mud bricks prepared using industrial wastes

The consensual view among researchers concerning building with industrial by-products is that the utilization of by-products represents green technology and sustainable development. The current investigation focuses on the utilization of an assortment of by-products for the production of bricks. The by-products include Red Mud (RM), Fly ash (FA), and Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS) combined in different proportions with lime. The Red Mud employed ranged from 100% to 60% with a decrement of 10%, whereas Fly ash and GGBS varied between10% and 40% with an increment of 10%. Bricks produced from two methods namely, ambient curing and firing methods, were tested as per IS standards/ASTM norms, on both the materials and the composites of bricks. XRD, XRF, and SEM focused on both the raw materials and the composites. Because geopolymer materials are partially amorphous materials with complex composition, understanding the structural characteristics of geopolymers is opined as intricate. The results of the investigation show that the compressive strength of the bricks increased with the increment in the percentage of Fly ash and GGBS. The compressive strength of Red Mud-GGBS fired bricks attained maximum strength of 7.56 MPa.

Experimental study of fibre-reinforced interlocking mud bricks under compressive test

The focus of this study was to develop manually compressed interlocking mud bricks and study their compressive strength. For this purpose, mud bricks were manufactured incorporating wheat straw (1–4% by weight of soil) and rice husk (1–5% by weight of soil). Furthermore, mud bricks were also manufactured using lime (12%, 15% and 19% by weight of soil) and a combination of wheat straw and rice husk, named straw husk (1–4% by weight of soil) as an additive. To investigate the strength and failure pattern of interlocking mud bricks, compressive strength testing was performed. The control mud bricks showed shrinkage cracks, but no signs of shrinkage cracking were observed in specimens incorporating fibres (wheat straw, rice husk and straw husk). A decrease in compressive strength was observed with increasing content of fibres in the mud brick specimens. However, interlocking mud bricks incorporating fibres fulfilled the minimum strength requirements of different standards for mud bricks. A decrease in compressive strength of the mud bricks was also observed when using lime as an additive. Nevertheless, interlocking mud bricks incorporating lime (up to 19%) satisfied the minimum strength requirement of the Turkish standard. Therefore, interlocking mud bricks incorporating fibres and lime can be used in earthen construction, leading towards sustainable structures.