Mountaineering Research Articles

Rime Mushrooms on Mountains: Description, Formation and Impacts on Mountaineering

Rime Mushrooms on Mountains: Description, Formation and Impacts on Mountaineering

High altitude retinopathy

High altitude retinopathy is a condition often seen among mountain climbers or among persons who reach high altitudes rapidly. In this report, we describe a case of a 57 year old healthy gentleman who presented with diminution of vision in both the eyes associated with retinal hemorrhages and the spontaneous resolution of the same.

Daily physical activity and muscle thickness of lower limbs: comparison between postmenopausal female mountain climbers and walkers

Daily physical activity and muscle thickness of lower limbs: comparison between postmenopausal female mountain climbers and walkers

Hans Thoenen: A modest man whose discoveries had a lasting impact on modern neuroscience

Hans Thoenen (1928–2012) was born in a beautiful alpine village in the Berner Oberland in Switzerland and retained the strong feelings for freedom and independence characteristic of Alpine dwellers. In his younger days he was a passionate mountain climber, both in the Swiss Alps and further afield, and he retained this fearless approach in his research, willing to take on new ideas and methodologies and to develop them.

Modern management of patients with frostbite

Background: Frostbite is a local cold injury that may lead to loss of tissue, and result in disability. It is normally a consequence of prolonged exposure of unprotected regions to subzero ambient temperatures, which causes impairment of the microcirculation. In Slovenia, the main risk group for frostbite injury are mountain climbers. Frostbite is classified as either a superficialreversible injury, or an irreversible deep tissue injury. Superficial frostbite is managed in out-patient clinics, whereas hospital treatment is required for deep frostbite. The success of frostbite management depends a great deal on the field first aid and emergency medical treatment, as well as on the subsequent hospital treatment. The present study reports of the success of a protocol for hospital treatment of frostbite (Planica Protocol), comprising the early diagnosis with three-phase bone scintigraphy (TS), administration of appropriate medications, particularly iloprost, and initiation of hyperbaric oxygen treatment (HBOT). Patients and methods: A total of 27 mountain climbers presented with frostbite injury between 2000 and 2010. Of these, 16 suffered superficial injuries and were treated as outpatients. The remaining 11 mountaineers (2 females, and 9 males) suffered deep frostbite and were hospitalised. Frostbite injury was sustained at different altitudes (range: 2000 to 8848 meters above sea level) in the toes (n = 9; 82 %) and fingers (n = 2; 18 %). Some climbers (n = 9; 82 %) received field first aid, and some (n = 9; 82 %) also emergency medical treatment in the field. On admission to hospital, patients received the following treatpatient clinics, whereas hospital treatment is required for deep frostbite. The success of frostbite management depends a great deal on the field first aid and emergency medical treatment, as well as on the subsequent hospital treatment. The present study reports of the success of a protocol for hospital treatment of frostbite (Planica Protocol), comprising the early diagnosis with three-phase bone scintigraphy (TS), administration of appropriate medications, particularly iloprost, and initiation of hyperbaric oxygen treatment (HBOT). Patients and methods: A total of 27 mountain climbers presented with frostbite injury between 2000 and 2010. Of these, 16 suffered superficial injuries and were treated as outpatients. The remaining 11 mountaineers (2 females, and 9 males) suffered deep frostbite and were hospitalised. Frostbite injury was sustained at different altitudes (range: 2000 to 8848 meters above sea level) in the toes (n = 9; 82 %) and fingers (n = 2; 18 %). Some climbers (n = 9; 82 %) received field first aid, and some (n = 9; 82 %) also emergency medical treatment in the field. On admission to hospital, patients received the following treatment: early diagnosis with TS (n = 7; 64 %); pharmaceutcial interventions, including acetylsalicylic acid, low-molecular weight heparin, pentoxifylline, antibiotics, iloprost (n = 8; 64 %); and HBOT (n = 8; 73 %). Results: Of the 11 climbers with deep frostbite, tissue loss and amputation was avoided in 6 (55 %). Necrectomy (full amputation) was performed in 5 climbers (45 %): full-length digit amputation (n = 2), and part-length (one or two phalanges) amputations (n = 3). Amputation of the toes was required in both female climbers. Conclusions: Timely field first aid and emergency medical treatment is of paramount importance for a good outcome of frostbite injury. Early diagnostics using three-phase bone scintigraphy (TS) can assess the extent of tissue damage before final clinical manifestation of frostbite is fully developed. The Planica Protocol for the treatment of frostbite injury, comprising early diagnostics (TS), proper medication (acetylsalicylic acid, low-molecular weight heparin, pentoxifylline, antibiotics, iloprost), and HBOT appears to provide a beneficial outcome of deep frostbite injury.

Extremely low volume, whole-body aerobic–resistance training improves aerobic fitness and muscular endurance in females

The current study evaluated changes in aerobic fitness and muscular endurance following endurance training and very low volume, whole-body, high-intensity, interval-style aerobic-resistance training. Subjects' enjoyment and implementation intentions were also examined prior to and following training. Subjects (22 recreationally active females (20.3 ± 1.4 years)) completed 4 weeks of exercise training 4 days per week consisting of either 30 min of endurance treadmill training (~85% maximal heart rate; n = 7) or whole-body aerobic-resistance training involving one set of 8 × 20 s of a single exercise (burpees, jumping jacks, mountain climbers, or squat thrusts) separated by 10 s of rest per session (n = 7). A third group was assigned to a nontraining control group (n = 8). Following training, [Formula: see text]O(2peak) was increased in both the endurance (~7%) and interval (~8%) groups (p < 0.05), whereas muscle endurance was improved (p < 0.05) in the interval group (leg extensions, +40%; chest presses, +207%; sit-ups, +64%; push-ups, +135%; and back extensions, +75%). Perceived enjoyment of, and intentions to engage in, very low volume, high-intensity, whole-body interval exercise were both increased following training (p < 0.05). No significant changes were observed for any variable in the control (nontraining) group. These data demonstrate that although improvements in cardiovascular fitness are induced by both endurance and extremely low volume interval-style training, whole-body aerobic-resistance training imparted addition benefit in the form of improved skeletal muscle endurance.

How a Blood Cell Intracellular Signal Keeps Blood Flowing

‘‘Epo,’’ or erythropoietin, is not just a performance-enhancing drug for endurance athletes. It is an essential hormone that regulates the rate of erythropoiesis, or creation of new red blood cells. Basal Epo signaling ensures that such cells are made constantly at a low level, to replace wornout cells. Certain stresses, such as hypoxia, increase Epo and lead to a steep increase in erythropoiesis, a phenomenon known to mountain climbers, who adapt to the low oxygen at high altitudes by packing more red blood cells into their blood. The Epo signaling cascade begins when the hormone binds to the Epo receptor. This ultimately leads to phosphorylation of a transcription factor called Stat5, which turns on a suite of genes controlling cell proliferation. A key question in understanding the Epo-Stat5 system is whether and how basal and stress-induced signaling differ. In a new study in this issue of PLOS Biology, Emelinda Porpiglia, Merav Socolovsky, and colleagues set out to answer that question. The authors used fluorescently labeled antibodies to tag phosphorylated Stat5 in erythropoeitic liver cells of mouse embryos. They also used a variety of cell surface markers to distinguish early versus late erythroblasts (cells that differentiate into red blood cells). They characterized three aspects of Stat5 signaling within Epostimulated cells: the median fluorescence from all cells within a subpopulation of erythroblasts, the fraction of those cells that were engaged in Stat5 signaling, and the level of phosphorylated Stat5 within signaling cells. They found that Stat5 signaling was highest in precursor cells, and declined with maturation. Furthermore, precursors exhibited an ‘‘analog,’’ graded increase in signaling in response to rising Epo levels. This graded increase was a combination of an increase in the number of signaling cells, and an increase in the signaling intensity within each cell. In contrast, older cells, which overall had much lower Stat5 signaling, responded to an increase in Epo by increasing the number of signaling cells, but within each cell, the signal intensity was binary, either ‘‘on’’ or ‘‘off,’’ with little change in intensity in the ‘‘on’’ position. What regulates this transition from analog to binary response? In large part, they found, the ability to mount a highintensity and graded response was due to larger amounts of Stat5 protein in earlier cells, rather than differences in Epo receptor level. When the authors added exogenous Stat5 to older cells, they too were able to signal at the higher level and in a graded way. Conversely, in cells with a mutant Epo receptor unable to bind Stat5, only basal-level, binary signaling was present, similar to the older cells. A binary signal, the authors argue, provides an ideal way to filter out the noise at low incoming Epo signal strength, while the analog response at higher Epo concentrations provides the cell with a more dynamic ability to respond to varying levels of stress. Additionally, they found, part of the stress response was an increased production of transferrin receptor (CD71), probably to help bring in extra iron to make more hemoglobin. Understanding this system is important not only for a better theoretical understanding of the dynamics of cell signaling. Targeting the high-level Stat5 signal, while maintaining the low-level one, may be a viable strategy for treating myeloproliferative disorders, including some types of leukemia, in which Stat5 is constitutively active.

Les alpinistes dans l’imprévu. Pour une approche naturaliste de la décision ?

La perspective naturaliste de la decision ou Naturalistic Decision Making (NDM) s'est deployee depuis une vingtaine d'annees pour comprendre comment des experts, evoluant dans des contextes particuliers, prennent des decisions qui doivent etre efficaces, rapides et sures dans des environnements hostiles, changeants et a enjeux potentiellement vitaux. Si ce courant a etudie de tres nombreux terrains, il n'a, en revanche, jamais prete attention aux decisions des professionnels de la haute montagne dans leurs pratiques quotidiennes. L'article se propose de montrer en quoi la NDM constitue un cadre approprie pour rendre compte de leurs decisions en cours d'action. Il constitue aussi une incitation a developper des recherches in vivo et souligne simultanement les defis empiriques et methodologiques auxquels les chercheurs sont confrontes.

Choice of Evils: In Search of a Viable Rationale

The defense of necessity, also known as the “choice of evils,” reflects popular moral intuitions and common sense: sometimes, breaking the rules is the right—indeed, the only—thing to do in order to avoid a greater evil. Citing a classic example, mountain climbers may break into a cabin to wait out a deadly snow storm and appropriate the owner’s provisions because their property violations are a lesser evil compared to the loss of life. At the same time, this defense contradicts the fundamental principles of criminal responsibility in that it authorizes violation of rights of innocent bystanders. By allowing the mountain climbers to override the property rights of the cabin owner, the defense effectively forbids the cabin owner to use force in response—a different rule would perpetuate violence. This outcome is at odds with the basic criminal law doctrines. There is no general duty to rescue in Anglo-American law. Yet, by forbidding the cabin owner to use force, the defense of necessity essentially imposes on him the duty to forego his interests in favor of those of the mountain climbers. The paper explores the origins and boundaries of the defense of necessity. It argues that the existing public and private theories of necessity are unsatisfactory and concludes that a viable theory of necessity should be able to explain why it is sometimes permissible to override individual rights of citizens without their consent or fault.

Compromised White Matter Microstructural Integrity after Mountain Climbing: Evidence from Diffusion Tensor Imaging

The aim of the present study was to investigate cerebral microstructural alterations after single short-term mountain climbing. Voxel-based morphometry (VBM) analysis of gray matter (GM) and white matter (WM) volumes and Tract-Based Spatial Statistics (TBSS) analysis of WM fractional anisotropy (FA) based on MRI images were carried out on 14 mountaineers before and after mountain climbing (6206 m). In addition, verbal and spatial 'two-back' tasks and serial reaction time task were also tested. No significant changes were detected in total and regional volumes of GM, WM, and cerebral spinal fluid after mountain climbing. Significant decreased FA values were found in the bilateral corticospinal tract, corpus callosum (anterior and posterior body, splenium), reticular formation of dorsal midbrain, left superior longitudinal fasciculus, right posterior cingulum bundles, and left middle cerebellar peduncle. In all the above regions, the radial diffusivity values tended to increase, except in the left superior longitudinal fasciculus the change was statistically significant. There were no significant changes in the two cognitive tests after mountain climbing. These findings indicate that short-term high-altitude exposure leads to disturbances mainly in cerebral WM, showing compromised fiber microstructural integrity, which may clarify the mechanisms underlining some cognitive and motor deficits tested previously.

Prolonged rock climbing activity induces structural changes in cerebellum and parietal lobe

This article analyzes whether climbing, a motor activity featured by upward movements by using both feet and hands, generation of new strategies of motor control, maintenance of not stable equilibrium and adoption of long-lasting quadrupedal posture, is able to modify specific brain areas. MRI data of 10 word-class mountain climbers (MC) and 10 age-matched controls, with no climbing experience were acquired. Combining region-of-interest analyses and voxel-based morphometry we investigated cerebellar volumes and correlation between cerebellum and whole cerebral gray matter. In comparison to controls, world-class MC showed significantly larger vermian lobules I-V volumes, with no significant difference in other cerebellar vermian lobules or hemispheres. The cerebellar enlargement was associated with an enlargement of right medial posterior parietal area. The specific features of the motor climbing skills perfectly fit with the plastic anatomical changes we found. The enlargement of the vermian lobules I-V seems to be related to highly dexterous hand movements and to eye-hand coordination in the detection of and correction of visuomotor errors. The concomitant enlargement of the parietal area is related to parallel work in predicting sensory consequences of action to make movement corrections. Motor control and sensory-motor prediction of actions make the difference between survive or not at extreme altitude.

Transcendent Experience, Flow and Happiness for Mountain Climbers

ABSTRACTMountaineering has become a popular form of adventure tourism. However, previous research has never explored the construct of transcendent experience and its effects on mountaineering. The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationships among transcendent experience, flow and happiness. Survey data from 339 mountain climbers in Taiwan indicate that transcendent experience positively affects flow and happiness. In addition, flow mediates the effect of transcendent experience on happiness. However, the relationship between flow and hedonic enjoyment is insignificant for novices. Implications of these findings as well as future research are subsequently discussed. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Romantic Writers and Mountaineering

I: Romantic Mountaineers On 9 August 1802, Samuel Taylor Coleridge returned to his Keswick home at the end of his famous nine-day ‘Circumcursion’ of the more remote parts of the Lake District, a vigorous tour that had included a ground-breaking ascent of Scafell and had left the poet’s trousers in tatters and his boots in need of repair. That evening Coleridge sent an excited account of his adventures to Robert Southey in which he made the first recorded use of the verb ‘mountaineering’, writing that he had ‘Spent the greater part of the next Day mountaineering’ (Collected Letters, ii. 846). Coleridge was using a new word for a new activity; the ascending of mountains for pleasure, rather than for economic or military purposes, was a pursuit that had originated in Britain and Europe in the previous few decades. The invention of this pursuit is illustrated by another etymological development; while Coleridge was the first to use ‘mountaineer’ as a verb, the noun form of the word was also undergoing a transformation of meaning. Long used to define ‘a person who is native to or lives in a mountainous region’, ‘mountaineer’ was also coming to denote ‘a person who engages in or is skilled at mountain climbing’. In 1792, for example, the pioneering mountain climber and travel writer Captain Joseph Budworth described his guide Paul Partridge in A Fortnight’s Ramble to the Lakes as ‘so bold a mountaineer, he can go any where that a sheep can; and I dare say thinks every person can do the same’. Here Partridge’s identity as one from a mountainous region is also being used to describe his skill at negotiating the environment’s challenging terrain and his ability to reach places not normally accessible to people. By the third edition of Rambles, when Budworth recounts what he claims to be the first ascent for pleasure of Pike o’ Stickle in 1797, he tests the applicability of the word to himself, describing how he and his guide ‘started like hardy mountaineers’. William Wordsworth plays on the word’s emergent double meaning in The Prelude when he describes himself and Robert Jones as ‘mountaineers’; both come from mountainous regions and both are intent upon climbing peaks. By 1837, when Wordsworth describes himself as ‘an Islander by birth,/ A Mountaineer by habit’, the word has become capable of referring specifically to an individual who participates in mountain climbing rather than one who lives in mountainous regions. The Romantic period, then, saw the emergence of a new activity— mountaineering—and a new identity—the mountaineer—and both, I want to argue in this essay, are crucial to Romanticism, to the

Body Composition and Somatotype of Experienced Mountain Climbers

In order to evaluate body composition and somatotype, 10 Italian experienced mountain climbers were assessed from an anthropometric point of view, before a high altitude ascent. Body mass, height, girths, skinfolds, and bone breadths were gathered and used to calculate body composition and somatotype of each subject. Means and standard deviations of the subjects' anthropometric characteristics were calculated. Mesomorphism (5.28±1.10) is the dominant somatotype component in all but one the participants, endomorphism (1.55±0.49) is low, and body fat percentage (11.76%±2.93) is low. Comparisons with athletes involved in other climbing subdisciplines highlight the specificity of elite mountain climbers anthropometry. The elite mountain climbers in our sample were predominantly mesomorphic with somatotype attitudinal mean values lower than reported for male athletes participating in free-climbing, volleyball, gymnastics, and soccer. Anthropometric characteristics may therefore play a role in mountain climbing, even though the trainable components may be more relevant than the nontrainable ones.

The Narrative of João Garcia

On the basis of narrative structure, this exploratory work aims to distinguish the lived experience of a Portuguese sports hero and noted mountain climber, João Garcia. Using phenomenological analyses of biographical interviews lasting over 15 hr in total, the narrative of João Garcia, the Portuguese alpinist who summitted the world’s 14 mountains above 8,000 m, is constructed. The analysis also includes the books written by Garcia himself in which he presents his “public” or “hero” self. This article focuses on João Garcia’s narrative of his life with an emphasis on his body–self experiences and his personal progression as a climber. Through the use of metaphors, the themes of the “one man show,” the transition to an alpine leader or captain and the body–self relationship are explored here, with a particular focus on Garcia’s desire to maximize his psychological and physical capacities in extreme and life-threatening conditions. The article concludes with some preliminary comments on the use of the narrative structure as a methodological tool.

Sartre’s Absolute Freedom in Being and Nothingness

In Being and Nothingness, Sartre distinguishes between two types of freedom. One is what one has wished, which is empirical and popular concept of 'freedom.'1 The other is oneself to determine oneself to wish, which is philosophical concept of . . . [that] means only autonomy of (483/563). The former can be termed freedom to obtain and latter freedom to choose. to obtain refers to our ability to act in certain ways in practical world. to refers to fundamental projects that we set for ourselves and, accordingly, meanings we confer on situations in which we find ourselves. Sartre is unequivocal that, for example, a person with no legs is not to walk. Nevertheless, he is to confer meanings on his in a variety of ways, according to his fundamental projects in life. We are a choice, and for us, to be is to choose ourselves. Even this disability from which suffer have assumed by very fact that live; surpass it toward my own projects, make of it necessary obstacle for my being, and cannot be crippled without choosing myself as crippled. This means that choose way constitute my disability (as unbearable, humiliating, be hidden, be revealed to all, object of pride, the justification of my failures, etc.). (328/393) The term freedom to could be confusing, since many of our choices lie within sphere of freedom to obtain. Sartre offers an example of a person who has a flat tire, understands that he will not arrive in time to close a deal with a prospective client, and, hence, chooses to sign a contract with a different client or even give up entire endeavor (505/58687). But such a choice would fall in sphere of what Sartre calls to obtain, not to choose, since it does not have to do with a sufficiently fundamental project in life and basic meanings a person attributes to himself and his situations, but, rather, with instrumental decisions about specific courses of action. Freedom to choose, then, is a technical term relating to a certain set of general choices about one's basic projects. Freedom to choose and to are interrelated, since specific projects we undertake assign particular meanings to situations in which we find ourselves, and it is only within these spheres of meaning that we obtain, or fail to obtain, certain specific ends. Sartre presents example of a mountain (488-89/569). If take on project of being a mountain climber, mountain acquires meaning of obstacle or challenge. But if my project is that of a lawyer, real estate developer, or environmental activist (to add more options to Sartre's original example), mountain has different meanings. Once projects are chosen and meanings conferred, we could find ourselves, in those spheres of meaning, succeeding or failing to what we want. The mountain climber could, for example, fail to reach mountain top; real estate developer could fail to build hotels on mountain; and environmental activist might fail to preserve natural habitat there. But success or failure to what they seek acquires its identity only because these individuals chose projects of a mountain climber, real estate developer, or environmentalist. Sartre uses this distinction to respond to anticipated criticism of one of his famous claims about freedom: that it is absolute. He writes, for example, I am absolutely and absolutely responsible for my situation (509/59 1);2 man cannot be sometimes slave and sometimes free; he is wholly and forever or he is not at all (441/485); and existence precedes and determines essence (438/513). Likewise, he asserts that we are totally free (555/64 1 ) and that there is no obstacle in absolute sense, but obstacle reveals its coefficient of adversity across freely invented and freely acquired techniques. …

She Slips a Totem under Her Pillow

145 SHE SLIPS A TOTEM UNDER HER PILLOW MARCI VOGEL When I am weary of existing as a city human, I imagine my body as a bear, gathering blackberries, making a den, sleeping all winter. I whisper to my dreaming form: Your animal nature thrives not on oil or water, not through air, but on earth, the weight of it, solid. When I was a girl, some scientist put me in a class for the gifted. I thought we were going to get presents. The teacher assigned a report instead. Such disappointment! I went home, placed my finger on the encyclopedia for bears. Opened it as if it were a special occasion, copied every word in my best printing: Grizzlies belong to a species of bears called Ursus arctos. They are sometimes called silvertips. Years pass: I am not a bear but a different teacher on a class trip where we traipse all the kids a mile in the dark for a lecture on survival. Mountain climbers eat butter to stay warm. I would rather eat fish. On the way back to the flatlands, we file past a real bear who watches through unclosed eyes. Only one child notices, and no one believes because she is the sort 146 who sees what is wild. I once knew a girl who fell in love with a bear forever towering at the wildlife museum. Instead of fear, the girl, just steady on her two human legs, would bare her teeth and growl. Listen: through deep winter sleep, I hear her. ...

Exercise habits and physical characteristics of middle-aged female mountain climbers

Exercise habits and physical characteristics of middle-aged female mountain climbers

Basic Medical Advice for Travelers to High Altitudes

High-altitude travel, for mountain climbing, trekking, or sightseeing, has become very popular. Therefore, the awareness of its dangers has increased, and many prospective travelers seek medical advice before setting forth on their trip. We selectively searched the literature for relevant original articles and reviews about acclimatization to high altitude and about high-altitude-related illnesses, including acute mountain sickness (AMS), high-altitude cerebral edema (HACE), and high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) (search in Medline for articles published from 1960-2010). High-altitude-related illnesses are caused by hypoxia and the resulting hypoxemia in otherwise healthy persons who travel too high too fast, with too little time to become acclimatized. The individual susceptibility to high-altitude-related illness is a further risk factor that can only be recognized in persons who have traveled to high altitudes in the past. In an unselected group of mountain climbers, 50% had AMS at 4500 meters, while 0.5-1% had HACE and 6% had HAPE at the same altitude. Persons with preexisting illnesses, particularly of the heart and lungs, can develop symptoms of their underlying disease at high altitudes because of hypoxia. Thus, medical advice is based on an assessment of the risk of illness in relation to the intended altitude profile of the trip, in consideration of the prospective traveler's suitability for high altitudes (cardiopulmonary performance status, exercise capacity) and individual susceptibility to high-altitude-related illnesses, as judged from previous exposures. The symptoms and treatment of high-altitude-related illnesses should be thoroughly explained. An understanding of the physiology of adaptation to high altitudes and of the pathophysiology and clinical manifestations of high-altitude-related illnesses provides a basis for the proper counseling of prospective travelers, through which life-threatening conditions can be prevented.

‘Cold Stony Reality’: Subjectivity and Experience in Victorian Mountaineering

‘Cold Stony Reality’: Subjectivity and Experience in Victorian Mountaineering