Motor Carrier Research Articles

Developing and Testing a Dynamic Theory of Motor Carrier Safety

Developing an understanding of the longitudinal relationships between different measures of motor carrier safety is important to advance theory and practice regarding this significant supply chain management and public policy issue. In this article, we combine core principles from several theoretical traditions to propose a dynamic theory of motor carrier safety that specifies the longitudinal relationships between three core measures of safety publically reported by the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration: unsafe driving, hour‐of‐service compliance, and vehicle maintenance. We test this theory using four years of longitudinal data on motor carrier safety for a random sample of large, for‐hire motor carriers. Results from fitting a vector multivariate autoregressive moving average time‐series model are largely consistent with the theory we propose. We describe the implications of our research for supply chain management theory and practice, summarize limitations, and suggest directions for future research.

Truck Cab Design: Perceptions of Women Truck Drivers

The trucking industry is a major force behind the United States (US) economy, with approximately 750,000 interstate motor carriers. Trucks deliver 70% of all freight tonnage, while 80% of U.S. communities receive goods exclusively by truck. The motor carrier industry provides jobs, generating significant income and tax revenue, representing approximately 5% of U.S. Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Despite one of every 13 people employed in a trucking-related job, there is a significant driver shortage. The American Trucking Associations (ATA) currently projects a shortage of 20,000 to 25,000 drivers in the for-hire truckload market (ATA, 2012). Women are well positioned to address this shortage. In 2011 women represented 7% of total employment in the U.S. trucking industry. The purpose of this study was to identify truck design needs for women truck drivers. This research is significant due to limited data sources about truck design needs for women drivers. This study also contributes to the body of knowledge about women in the trucking industry. In response, a 33 question survey was developed using Qualtrics™ survey software. In April 2012, an electronic survey was distributed to 663 Women in Trucking Association members over a two week period with a response rate of 18%. Results were separated into quantitative and qualitative data and analyzed accordingly. Adjustability was a central issue facing women truck drivers. Recommendations for seat design, side mirrors, steps, handrails, hydraulic hood lifters, and steering consoles will be presented. Limitations of the study and recommendations for future research will be discussed.

The impact of new entrants and the new entrant program on motor carrier safety performance

Due to the importance of the recent Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration requirement that all motor carriers participate in the New Entrant Safety Assurance Program (NESAP), the purpose of this study is to examine the relationship of the NESAP to motor carrier safety performance. Our study finds that carriers who entered the industry before the NESAP program (e.g., more experienced carriers) have significantly better safety performance in comparison to new entrant carriers. We also demonstrate that new entrants who successfully complete the requirements of the NESAP have significantly better safety performance than new entrants who fail to complete the program successfully. The implications of the study are also discussed.

Career stage and truck drivers’ regulatory attitudes

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to determine whether or not early, mid, late career stage truck drivers view the safety regulations differently and how drivers’ regulatory attitudes influence their compliance attitudes and intentions.Design/methodology/approachThis survey study is designed to evaluate the differences in truck drivers’ attitudes toward safety regulations across career stages. Moreover, the study applies ordinary least squares path analysis to determine the influence of drivers’ regulatory attitudes on compliance attitudes and intentions.FindingsResults revealed that drivers in early and late career stages harbor different perceptions of the burden safety regulations place on driving operations, the effectiveness of driver-focused safety regulations in maintaining road safety, and the acceptability of certain unsafe acts. Moreover, drivers’ attitudes toward regulations directly and indirectly influenced compliance attitudes and intentions.Research limitations/implicationsThe participant sample was taken from employees of four large motor carriers operating refrigerated and dry box trailers over the road in interstate commerce. While the sample is roughly representative of this segment, the authors recommend caution in generalizing the findings across the diverse US trucking industry as a whole.Practical implicationsFindings suggest that motor carrier management should tailor safety and regulatory familiarization training across career stages. Moreover, carriers should provide targeted communication regarding the effectiveness of regulations and impact of regulations on driving operations in order to alleviate drivers’ negative attitudes toward regulations where possible.Originality/valueThis study marks the first application of career stage theory to the motor carrier safety context. This study also provides further evidence as to the efficacy of drivers’ attitudes toward safety regulations in predicting drivers’ compliance attitudes and intentions. A better understanding of these phenomena may lead to improved compliance and safety.

An exploratory study of hours of service and its safety impact on motorists

There were an estimated 438,000 truck crashes in 2014 that led to approximately 110,000 injuries and 3903 deaths (HTSA and DoT, 2014). Truck driver fatigue has been cited as a major reason for these accidents Federal Motor Carrier Safety & Administration, 2015 (). In July 2013, the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Association (FMCSA) revised its hours of service (HOS) regulatory policy, which restricts the number of duty and driving hours a truck driver can operate in order to reduce the fatigue related accidents involving trucks. The revision changed the unlimited restart (allows truck drivers to reset their duty time log back to zero) provision by restricting it to 1 restart per 168h (1 week) and added that the restart must span two consecutive 1a.m. to 5a.m. periods. Lawmakers suspended these two aspects of the restart provision in the Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations act on December 16, 2014 until more analysis was completed on the efficacy of these regulations due to unintended consequences that allegedly negatively affected motorist's safety. Countering truck driver fatigue is an important issue and an extremely difficult task because of the many confounding aspects that can cause fatigue. The new regulation set forth in July 2013, was supposed to lessen fatigue and thus reduce accidents caused by truck drivers. The current HOS regulation was in place for approximately 16 months, producing enough data for a statistical analysis of its effects on truck driver safety. This research found that by comparing truck driving safety data prior to the change in July of 2013 (the unlimited restart provision) to truck driving safety data during the enactment of the 1 restart per 168-h restriction and 1a.m. to 5a.m. provision that the percent of accidents caused by truck drivers did not decrease. Furthermore, this research found that the HOS changes implemented on July 1, 2013 have not led to a significant change in accidents involved and caused by truck drivers. These results suggest that other factors appear to be linked to motorists’ safety, rather than the updated HOS regulation.

Analysis of Truck Accidents Using Structural Equation Models

Abstract Many researchers and practitioners in the trucking industry have expressed concerns with the implementation of Compliance, Safety and Accountability (CSA), which is a safety management initiative created by the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA). CSA assigns Behavior Analysis Safety Improvement Categories (BASIC) scores to carriers, based on driver and vehicle performance. This technique of assigning BASIC scores to carriers is a cause of concern for many stakeholders in the industry. This article presents a structural equation model (SEM) to understand the relationship between the BASIC scores and crash records of the carriers. Exogenous variables are Unsafe Driving, Fatigue Driving, Driver Fitness, Controlled Substances/Alcohol, and Vehicle Maintenance. Crash-Per-Million-Miles is the endogenous variable in the SEM. We observed existence of a latent variable driver characteristic, which in turn influences three of the exogenous variables. Based on the SEM model output we concluded that four of the exogenous variables—Unsafe Driving, Fatigue Driving, Driver Fitness, and Controlled Substances/Alcohol—have significant influence on the endogenous variable.

An observational study of the safety benefits of electronic logging devices using carrier-collected data

ABSTRACTObjective: Fatigue has been shown to be a contributing factor in many large truck crashes. Long duty periods, irregular work schedules, and poor sleeping environments make fatigue a noteworthy concern in trucking operations. One way to limit fatigued driving is through prescriptive hours-of-service (HOS) regulations. This duty status information is typically recorded in written logs; however, more trucking companies are moving toward electronic HOS recorders. These devices were first marketed as productivity tools; however, more recently they have been touted for their safety benefits in reducing fatigued truck drivers (because falsifying electronic logs is difficult).Methods: The purpose of the current study was to assess the benefits of electronic logging devices (ELDs) on safety and HOS violations in trucks as they operated during normal revenue service. Data on crashes, HOS violations, mileage, and onboard safety systems were obtained from participating motor carriers. Although the final data sets included data from 11 carriers representing medium and large carriers (including a total of 82,943 crashes, 970 HOS violations, and 224,034 truck-years that drove a total of 15.6 billion miles), the data set in the study was skewed toward larger, for-hire carriers and may not represent the overall U.S. trucking population.Results: After controlling for calendar year, carriers in the data set, onboard safety system status, and long-haul/regional indicator, ELD-equipped trucks had a significantly lower total crash rate (11.7% reduction), preventable crash rate (5.1% reduction), driving-related HOS violation rate (53% reduction), and non-driving-related HOS violation rate (49% reduction) than trucks not equipped with ELDs.Conclusion: The results show a clear safety benefit, in terms of crash and HOS violation reductions, for trucks equipped with ELDs.

A New Look at the Longitudinal Relationship Between Motor Carrier Financial Performance and Safety

Motor carrier safety impacts the well‐being of the traveling public and the economic well‐being of the shippers who entrust motor carriers with safely transporting freight. Shippers are affected by motor carrier safety due to accidents damaging their cargo and disrupting their customers’ operations. One characteristic frequently theorized to predict motor carrier safety is motor carriers financial performance. However, the literature offers mixed evidence linking motor carrier financial performance to safety. This does not help practitioners or policy makers and necessitates research to resolve these inconsistent findings, which we undertake in this research. We extend previous work by developing a theoretical framework based on strain theory to explain why both absolute (static) financial performance and year‐to‐year change in financial performance should uniquely affect carrier safety. We test our hypotheses by fitting mixed‐effects models to a repeated‐measure, longitudinal database of publically traded motor carrier financial performance and safety measures. Results indicate that financial performance measures uniquely affect carrier safety. These findings attempt to resolve the inconsistencies in the past literature and, carry important implications for researchers studying motor carrier safety, motor carrier managers, shippers, and policy makers.

Truck Driver Safety: An Evolutionary Research Approach

AbstractDriver safety is consistently a top concern of motor‐carrier industry leaders at all levels. Efforts to improve safety performance span a variety of domains, and one key element of the safety problem is the behavior of the commercial motor‐vehicle operator—the driver of the “big rigs” we share the highways with on a daily basis. The purpose of this article is to tell the story of an ongoing research program designed to understand safe/unsafe driving in the unique occupational context of the North American commercial motor‐vehicle driver (i.e., truck driver). As part of a broad, multiyear effort, the investigators who immersed themselves in that culture at several motor carriers were granted unique access to their employees. By allowing the employees (safety professionals and drivers alike) to inform the research direction, overlaid with extant psychosocial behavioral models post hoc, a promising stream of research was developed that led to a more integrated and comprehensive theoretical framework. The framework informs the development of interventions in hiring and training designed to improve driver safety. Recommendations for how this approach can be applied to other domains are provided.

Human resource management practices and organizational effectiveness: internal fit matters

Purpose– The purpose of this paper is to test alternative conceptualizations of the relationship between systems of human resource management (HRM) practices and organizational effectiveness. The authors describe a framework suggesting a complex relationship between HRM practices and organizational effectiveness, test this approach empirically in a large sample of US motor carriers, and compare the results to those derived using other approaches prevalent in the strategic HRM literature.Design/methodology/approach– The study used a large scale cross-sectional survey design. In a sample of US motor carriers, questionnaires completed by senior HRM department staff were used as the primary data. The data were supplemented by organizational effectiveness data reported by motor carriers to the US Government.Findings– The results support the general hypothesis that HRM practices enhance organizational effectiveness, provide some evidence that HRM practices can enhance each other’s effectiveness, and underscore the value of theory driven methodological approaches. Specifically, the authors found that HRM system comprising practices that ensure selectivity in staffing, performance-based pay, and enhanced employee opportunity through participation in decision-making result in higher levels of organizational effectiveness. Additionally, the effects of other combinations of these practices varied.Practical implications– This study highlights the need for HRM departments and organizations to approach the strategic management of employees with a systems perspective. The optimal design of an HRM strategy must take into account the various components.Originality/value– This study is one of the first to test the main assumptions of the systems perspective in strategic HRM using multiple measures and empirical approaches for combining HRM practices into systems. Comparison of these different approaches in a single study offers insight into how researchers can test the relationship between HRM practices and organizational effectiveness and provide practitioners more useful approaches for designing HRM systems.

Editors' Introduction

Editors' Introduction

Technology, Firm Size, and Safety: Theory and Empirical Evidence from the US Motor-carrier Industry

AbstractThe purpose of this paper is to examine the relationship between motor-carrier firm size and safety outcomes. Leveraging insights from the resource-based view of the firm, we develop hypotheses regarding this important relationship. To test our hypotheses, we constructed an original commercial motor-carrier safety database, drawing on data from the Motor Carrier Management Information System and the Safety Measurement System. The results demonstrate that there is a significant and positive relationship between firm size and safety performance as measured through a carrier's number of crashes, unsafe driving violations, hours-of-service compliance, and vehicle maintenance violations. The impact of firm size on safety performance varies according to industry segment. This study has important academic and public policy implications.

Sweating the Assets: Asset Leanness and Financial Performance in the Motor Carrier Industry

Originally adopted by the automotive manufacturers, lean management practices have since been applied to many other manufacturing industries. This study reviews the different theoretical perspectives on the leanness‐performance relationship in the context of the motor carriage industry. Drawing on both the lean management in logistics and organizational slack literatures, we develop hypotheses addressing the link between asset leanness and financial performance. These hypotheses are empirically tested using a comprehensive panel data set of 1,172 firm‐quarter observations from the U.S. publicly traded truckload motor carriers. Initially expecting an inverted U‐shaped relationship between asset leanness and performance, findings indicated a U‐shaped relationship, both for carriers' total assets and the subset of trailer assets.

Cargo theft in the motor carrier industry: an exploratory study

Supply chain managers increasingly point to supply chain security as one of their most pressing concerns. One especially challenging security related issue for those responsible for the shipment and transportation of cargo is the threat of cargo theft. Cargo theft is estimated to cost companies $10B annually in the U.S and $30B worldwide, with more than 90 % of those incidents targeting the transportation component of the supply chain. Despite the increased cost and threat of cargo theft, little scholarly research is available which investigates the issue. This research endeavors to extend our understanding of theft of in-transit cargo. More specifically, this effort endeavors to identify how transportation providers are combating cargo theft and thus answers the call for investigations into corporate responses to security issues like cargo theft. This research utilizes in-depth qualitative interviews with industry professionals to gain insights into the practices managers are using to protect against the current threat of cargo theft and to highlight some of the future challenges and trends related to cargo theft.

Commercial Motor Vehicle Driver Obstructive Sleep Apnea Screening and Treatment in the United States: An Update and Recommendation Overview.

No regulatory mandate exists in the United States (U.S.) for comprehensive obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) risk assessment and stratification for commercial motor vehicle (CMV) drivers. Current Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA) requirements are outdated and depend largely on subjective report, a less reliable strategy in an occupational setting. Without FMCSA standards, sleep specialists, occupational medical examiners and employers rely on a collection of medical consensus recommendations to establish standards of care. These recommendations advise OSA risk assessment through a combination of focused medical history, physical examination, questionnaires, and accident history, which increase OSA detection compared to current FMCSA standards. For those diagnosed with OSA, consensus-based risk stratification helps identify CMV drivers who may benefit from OSA treatment and establish minimum standards for assessing treatment efficacy and adherence. Unfortunately no consolidated recommendation exists; rather, publications span medical and governmental literature in a patchwork fashion that no longer fully reflect current practice due to subsequent advances in OSA diagnosis, treatment, and technology. Based on searches of medical literature, internet materials, and reference lists from existing publications, an overview and discussion of key published recommendations regarding OSA assessment and treatment in CMV operators is provided. Suggestions for incorporating these recommendations into clinical sleep medicine practice in the U.S. are presented. The challenge for sleep specialists is maintaining the delicate balance between recommendations impacting standard of care and associated medico-legal impact with stakeholder interests from medical, regulatory, industry and public perspectives while providing high quality and efficient care.

Use of quality management tools to analyse delivery exceptions in the motor carrier industry: a case study

The study adopts quality management tools to analyse data obtained from the operations of a motor carrier on delivery exceptions. Delivery exceptions are defined as damages, shortages, and overages that results due to a delivery attempt. An exception occurs when a package or shipment encounters an unforeseen event, which could result in a negative effect on the delivery performance. Examples of exception include address unknown, damage to shipment, or signature not received. The ability of a motor carrier to deliver products to the customer with little or no exceptions can be a key selection criterion for shippers in choosing motor carriers. Using an actual case study scenario, we identify root causes of delivery exceptions using quality management tools and classify the exceptions in one of six categories. Major causes of the exceptions are identified and categorised and recommendations on how to mitigate these exceptions are proposed.

Employee or Independent Contractor? How the Effects of Classifications Impact Employer Liability

RECENTLY, awareness has begun to grow about the reclassification of workers as employees or contracts across all industries. (1) This heightened awareness is the result of increased enforcement actions and challenges by various governmental entities to the classification of workers as contractors. (2) For example, federal worker misclassification legislation has been proposed, (3) and the Internal Revenue Service has launched an initiative focusing on more aggressive audits of companies. (4) Classifying workers as employees or contractors can be extremely complex and vital to your case. The stakes are extremely high because consequences can be staggering. (5) A number of states have also increased enforcement. In California, the Port of Los Angeles and Port of Long Beach implemented mandatory concession agreements for drayage trucking services both ports. (6) The Port of Los Angeles provision required motor carriers providing drayage services to from using contractors to using 100-percent employees within a five-year period, beginning with at least a 20% transition to employees by the end of the fourth quarter of 2009. (7) In Maryland, the legislature enacted a Workplace Fraud Act in 2009 effectively creating a presumption that all workers are employees. (8) That Act authorized significant potential penalties to be imposed against businesses for knowing failure to properly classify individuals as employees. (9) The importance of these issues also extends to civil litigation. (10) The long established doctrine of respondent superior or imputed negligence provides employers can be held vicariously liable in tort law for the negligence of their employees under various circumstances. (11) The doctrine is premised on the notion one who is in a position to exercise control over the performance of a service must exercise it or bear the loss. (12) An is usually as a member of the employer's staff and subject to the control of the employer. (13) The employee's tortious acts committed within the course and the scope of his employment resulting in liability are, therefore, imputed to the employer due to the working relationship existing between the parties. (14) Generally, a business that contracts with an is immune from vicarious liability for damages to a third party for the negligent acts of the committed during the performance of the agreement. (15) An is commonly defined as one who contracts to perform a certain task or duty independently according to their own means and methods without being subject to the control of the hiring party except as to the ultimate goal or result. (16) Historically in circumstances where this level of independence existed, the imposition of liability on the hiring entity who only exercised limited control over the method in which the contracted work was performed resulted in inequity. (17) As stated in Prosser on Torts, the work is to be regarded as the contractor's own enterprise, and he, rather than the employer, is the proper party to be charged with the responsibility for preventing the risk, and administering and distributing against it. (18) Therefore, the distinction between an employee and an independent contractor can become a critical liability issue to the hiring entity. (19) This article will discuss the distinction between employees, contractors, and borrowed servants for the purpose of imputing tort liability to employers. Specifically, it will focus on the distinction between these classifications under the purview of two representative states that border one another--Missouri and Illinois. In this context, we provide a series of similar automobile collision cases from Missouri and Illinois depicting common employee-independent situations. As this article shows, similar facts and circumstances associated with the employee-employer relationship may lead to surprisingly different outcomes. …

Repeated Cross-Sectional Assessment of Commercial Truck Driver Health.

To assess relationships and trends over time in individual conditions and multiple conditions among a large sample of independent, nonoverlapping truck drivers using a repeated cross-sectional study design. Commercial driver medical examinations were conducted on 95,567 commercial drivers between January 1, 2005, and October 31, 2012. Specific medical conditions that have been identified by the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration's Medical Review Board as possibly increasing crash risk were examined. Prevalence and trends over time were analyzed. A total of 8 of the 13 conditions significantly increased from 2005 to 2012. Prevalence of multiple concomitant conditions also increased, with prevalence odds ratios as high as 7.39 (95% confidence interval, 3.92 to 13.98) for four or more conditions in 2012 as compared with 2005. Individual and multiple conditions thought to be associated with increased crash risk significantly increased between 2005 and 2012.

Two dimensions of service: a single carrier analysis

Purpose– The purpose of this paper is to investigate the cost of improving service to a motor carrier in the intermodal market. The paper further seeks to validate the existence of two dimensions of service with differing impacts on costs. The physical capacity dimension is related to the traditional view that higher quality costs more and the human performance dimension is related to the production management view that higher quality can actually save money by reducing the need for scrap and rework.Design/methodology/approach– To determine the cost of improved service, a translog cost function that included variables for each of the two dimensions of service quality was estimated. Because the data were centered prior to estimation, the first-order coefficients are interpretable as elasticity of cost with respect to quality.Findings– Results of estimation show that improvements to the physical capacity dimension lead to higher costs and improvements to the human performance have no significant impact on costs.Research limitations/implications– The major limitation of this study is that it is restricted to a single carrier and total costs were allocated according to transit time not specific costs.Practical implications– Results of this study would help a carrier or other service provider determine which aspects of service to focus on in order to improve service with minimal impact on costs.Originality/value– The value of this paper lies in verifying the existence of two dimensions of service and estimating how they impact costs.

Modelo estadístico que permite observar el impacto de los factores que inciden en el rendimiento de combustible

El presente trabajo propone un modelo estadístico de regresión lineal múltiple para la toma de decisiones sobre el rendimiento de combustible con aplicación a la industria del autotransporte en México considerando los factores con mayor incidencia en el consumo. El modelo aplicado tiene significancia estadística, así como las variables explicativas: tipo de ruta, antigüedad y cantidad de diésel consumido en baja, esto con un nivel de confianza del 95%, lográndose explicar un 94% del efecto de interés modelado. La contribución fundamental de este artículo es proponer un modelo estadístico como una nueva herramienta de gestión para los tomadores de decisiones del sector, en relación al establecimiento de estándares de combustible y la administración en general de este insumo, puesto que fue determinado a partir de las condiciones operativas de la industria del transporte y no bajo condiciones experimentales (difíciles de replicar) empleadas por el fabricante del automotor.