Motor Skills Research Articles

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Impact on Neurodevelopment, Diagnosis, Early Intervention and Motor Disorders in Children under 3 Years

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) is the most severe outcome of prenatal alcohol exposure, characterized by a combination of somatic and neurological abnormalities, including facial dysmorphism, growth deficits, and neurocognitive impairments. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) encompass a broader range of outcomes from prenatal alcohol exposure, with varying degrees of severity. Alcohol consumption during pregnancy can disrupt fetal development, with no known safe threshold for its intake at any stage of gestation. The consequences are particularly profound on the central nervous system (CNS), where damage to structures like the cerebellum can lead to motor dysfunctions, balance issues, and cognitive impairments. Early identification and diagnosis of FAS or FASD, especially during the critical first years of life, is essential for improving developmental outcomes. Intervention strategies, including physical and cognitive therapy, can help mitigate long-term disabilities associated with these conditions. Diagnostic methods, such as ultrasound for fetal structural abnormalities and the AUDIT screening tool, are integral for early detection. This review highlights the impact of prenatal alcohol exposure on motor skill development, particularly the persistence of primitive reflexes in infants with FAS, which is indicative of CNS immaturity and necessitates early therapeutic interventions. Understanding these motor and neurological markers is critical for providing appropriate support and improving outcomes for affected children.

Latent motor growth trajectories of term and preterm infants based on caregiver report

ABSTRACT Early motor development is a key predictor of development in other skill domains and specific neurodevelopmental disorders, but it is typically measured as achievement of milestones rather than rate of development. To explore the value of the latter approach, this study utilized a novel caregiver report method to examine differences in the developmental trajectory of motor development in term-born compared to preterm-born infants. Caregiver-infant dyads (331 term, 240 preterm) were followed from birth through 12 months (48% female; 6.4% Hispanic; 34.1% Black; 10.3% Mixed or Biracial; and 48.3% White). Longitudinal Item Response Theory (IRT) modeling was used to compare growth trajectories of motor skills between term and preterm infants. The moderating effects of biological sex on group differences also were examined. The main effect for term status was significant. Preterm infants exhibited slower rates of growth in motor ability over the first 12 months compared with term infants. Differences in rate of growth were significant by 6 months of age. In the term group only, females exhibited more rapid growth than males in motor ability. Findings indicate that caregiver report yields reliable estimates of growth in the latent trait of motor ability, with slower rate of growth in infants born preterm. Estimates of latent growth in motor ability may provide more sensitive measures of neurodevelopmental risk and a method to examine response to treatment.

Developing an Integration of Sports and Health Teaching Programs to Improve the Physical and Mental Health of Primary School Students

Background and Aims: At present, China's school physical education focuses on the teaching of sports knowledge and skills, ignoring the individual student's interest in sports activities and health education needs, in recent years, the national education department has required that schools should integrate health education into physical education teaching, but the effect is not obvious, resulting in part of the students' aversion to physical education learning and aversion to emotion, the relevant surveys show that teenagers' rates of myopia, obesity and other indicators are rising year by year The study shows that the myopia rate, obesity rate and other indicators of adolescents are increasing year by year, which seriously affects the physical and mental health of adolescents. From the interdisciplinary perspective of kinesiology and health education, this study aims to develop and implement a teaching program that integrates physical education and health education to improve the physical and mental health of fifth-grade elementary school students. The specific objectives were to improve students' physical skills and health knowledge and to promote their overall physical and mental health development through integrally designed program content. Methodology: This paper adopts the methods of literature, questionnaire survey, expert interview, and comparative experimental method, and analyzes the G*power software to determine the sample size, conducts questionnaires, physical fitness, psychological, and other pre-tests on the samples, and screens out 60 students aged between 10 and 11 years old in two fifth-grade classes of Jinzhou Elementary School to be the subjects of the experimental experiment: class 1 is the experimental group of 30 people, including 14 boys, girls 16 students; class 2 is the control group of 30 students, of which 13 are boys and 17 are girls. A before-and-after comparison experimental design was used to assess the effect of the new teaching program through tests such as the integrated physical education and health teaching program, students' physical fitness testing instruments, psychometric scales, mean, standard deviation, t-test statistics, and so on. Results: The experimental results showed that the teaching program integrating physical education and health education had a significant positive effect on improving the physical fitness and mental health of primary school students. This is manifested in the significant improvement of students' BMI, lung capacity, motor skills, and mental health indicators. Conclusion: The physical education and health integration teaching program proposed in this study not only effectively improves the physical and mental health of primary school students, but also provides new ideas and methods for the reform and development of elementary school education. The empirical results of this study provide a basis for future related research and have certain application value and academic contribution.

Motor skills in children with ADHD: overlap with developmental coordination disorder

Individuals with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) often have overlooked motor difficulties which can be at least partially attributed to co-occurring conditions such as Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). Understanding the influence of DCD and motor difficulties is important to detect in children for early support. Accordingly, the present study examined the prevalence of DCD diagnoses, cases of probable DCD, and related impairments among German-speaking parents of children with ADHD. A total of N = 168 parents completed an online study about their child’s potential for co-occurring DCD via the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCD-Q). Even after children with DCD diagnoses were removed from the sample (n = 46), a majority still remained below threshold for probable DCD (55.9%) according to parent-reports. Via exploratory analyses, we also found that a majority of parents in the sample had not heard of DCD before (64.9%) and that many parents did not deem DCD as relevant to their children, even when their DCD-Q scores were in the range of probable DCD. The results align with a high prevalence of DCD in children with ADHD despite a simultaneous lack of awareness of DCD. Furthermore, findings in our sample align with frequently estimated global co-occurrence rates of 50% between ADHD and DCD. Broadly, the results support that motor difficulties should be considered in ADHD assessment and intervention.

Early gross motor performance is associated with concurrent prelinguistic and social development.

To study how early gross motor development links to concurrent prelinguistic and social development. We recruited a population-based longitudinal sample of 107 infants between 6 and 21 months of age. Gross motor performance was quantified using novel wearable technology for at-home recordings of infants' spontaneous activity. The infants' prelinguistic and social development was assessed in parallel with a standardized parental questionnaire (Infant Toddler Checklist). The developmental trajectories of motor, prelinguistic, and social performance were inspected longitudinally at individual level, and correlated to each other to measure the relative, age-adjusted advance in performance (z-scores). Advanced gross motor maturation (higher z-score) links to more advanced prelinguistic development (β = 0.033, p = 0.016, R2 = 0.706) and social development (β = 0.038, p = 0.025, R2 = 0.600). When looking at specific gross motor skills, an increased amount of independent movement (crawling, standing, walking) links to more advanced prelinguistic and social abilities. We introduce a novel approach that measures individual level gross motor development longitudinally at high resolution from child's spontaneous movements at home. This approach shows that age-adjusted relative advance in motor performance is linked to concurrent prelinguistic and social development, supporting the idea of developmental interaction across neurocognitive domains. Early gross motor, prelinguistic, and social developments show trackable idiosyncratic trajectories. Maturity in gross motor performance links to concurrent prelinguistic and social development. Gross motor performance can be assessed reliably and objectively from infants' spontaneous activity using unsupervised wearable recordings in their native environment, the homes. The present methodology with longitudinal quantitative assessments and age-adjusted modeling with z-scores introduce a potential paradigm shift to studying early neurodevelopment in the context of pediatric health, benchmarking of therapeutic interventions, and other developmental studies.

Preparing physiotherapists for the future: the development and evaluation of an innovative curriculum

BackgroundEducational innovation in health professional education is needed to keep up with rapidly changing healthcare systems and societal needs. This study evaluates the implementation of PACE, an innovative curriculum designed by the physiotherapy department of the HAN University of Applied Sciences in The Netherlands. The PACE concept features an integrated approach to learning and assessment based on pre-set learning outcomes, personalized learning goals, flexible learning routes, and programmatic assessment. PACE distinguishes itself from traditional education because of the flexible learning routes, vertical organization in learning communities, absence of pre-defined learning activities and class schedules, and a culture of continuous learning and development. PACE is based on three guiding principles: 1) flexible and varied, 2) self-directed and collaborative, 3) future-oriented. PACE was implemented in 2021 for first-year students. This study evaluates the implementation to inform future curriculum development.MethodsA sequential explanatory mixed methods design was used to evaluate the implementation of PACE using a questionnaire, focus groups, in-depth interviews, and a national progress test allowing for benchmarking results. Participants were undergraduate physiotherapy students of cohort 2021–2022, the first group who experienced PACE and teachers involved with this cohort. Questionnaire data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. To compare mean total scores of the national progress test between four different universities a one-way ANOVA was conducted including a post-hoc analysis. Reflexive thematic analysis guidelines were applied to analyze the interview data.ResultsIn total 82 first year students (44,6%) of cohort 2021–2022 and 36 teachers (60%) completed the questionnaire. Results show that the guiding principles were implemented as intended. Results of the national progress test on knowledge and clinical reasoning showed that students of the HAN University performed well compared to other universities. Thematic analysis of interviews and focus groups resulted in three themes and nine subthemes: 1) navigating a personalized curriculum, 2) caring and sharing, and 3) shaping professional identity. PACE contributed positively to students' intrinsic motivation, learning joy, identity development, and life-long learning skills. Areas for improvement were self-directed learning support, and teaching strategies to prompt deep learning.ConclusionThe evaluation showed that the guiding principles of PACE were implemented as intended and that the innovation positively contributed to student learning,

Validation and reliability of a visualization and relaxation exercise program for enhancing speed climbing performance

Introduction and Objective: This study aimed to design, validate, and evaluate the reliability of a visualization and relaxation exercise program to improve speed climbing performance. While it may seem less popular, these techniques are crucial for creating more focus in the mind, decreasing anxiety, and improving motor skills in high-intensity sports. Methodology: In this research, a mixed-method research design was used with 30 athletes aged 18 – 35 from Yogyakarta state with a minimum of two years of climbing experience. Expert evaluations, observer training, and reliability testing were used in the validation process. Movement skill, power, balance, speed, timing, and tactical acumen are the criteria for assessment. Results: Aiken's V index scores (≥ 0.86) confirmed that the research instrument has content validity with strong agreement between the experts. High consistency was also reflected by observer reliability metrics, such as Cohen’s Kappa (≥ 0.86) and Kendall’s Tau B. The generalizability analysis of the instrument reinforced its accuracy and precision in measuring program impact. Conclusions: The manufactured program gives coaches and researchers a way of structuring mental training to improve speed climbing performance in a reliable framework. Its robust nature facilitates reliable measurement of athletes’ technical, tactical, and psychological attributes and, thus, the development of more effective training interventions. Additional research suggests utilizing this tool with diverse, larger populations and expanding the application to other precision-based sports.

Associations of Maternal Prenatal Zinc Consumption with Infant Brain Tissue Organization and Neurodevelopmental Outcomes

Background/Objectives: While studies in rat pups suggest that early zinc exposure is critical for optimal brain structure and function, associations of prenatal zinc intake with measures of brain development in infants are unknown. This study aimed to assess the associations of maternal zinc intake during pregnancy with MRI measures of brain tissue microstructure and neurodevelopmental outcomes, as well as to determine whether MRI measures of the brain mediated the relationship between maternal zinc intake and neurodevelopmental indices. Methods: Forty-one adolescent mothers were recruited for a longitudinal study during pregnancy. Maternal zinc intake was assessed during the third trimester of pregnancy using a 24 h dietary recall. Infant MRI scans were acquired at 3 weeks postpartum using a 3.0 Tesla scanner to measure fractional anisotropy (FA) and mean diffusivity (MD). Cognitive, language, and motor skills were assessed at 4, 14, and 24 months postpartum using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development. Results: Greater prenatal zinc intake was associated with reduced FA in cortical gray matter, particularly in the frontal lobe [medial superior frontal gyrus; β (95% CI) = −1.0 (−1.5, −0.5)], in developing white matter, and in subcortical gray matter nuclei. Greater prenatal zinc intake was associated with reduced MD in cortical gray matter and developing white matter [superior longitudinal fasciculus; −4.4 (−7.1, −1.7)]. Greater maternal zinc intake also was associated with higher cognitive development scores at 14 [0.1 (0.0, 0.1)] and 24 [0.1 (0.0, 0.2)] months of age; MRI indices of FA and MD did not mediate this relationship. Conclusions: Maternal prenatal zinc intake was associated with more favorable measures of brain tissue microstructural maturation and cognitive development during infancy.

What is transformed, resists, or is strengthened in physical education in school contexts? Analyzing the dispositional plasticity of a female migrant student

This article presents the socializing effects of PE, and more broadly school contexts, on the set of dispositions of a Somali migrant girl, recently arrived in France. Shaped from various agents of socialization and according to her gender, her social class, her religion and her migratory background, this portrait shows how PE allows, through individual variations, to (trans)form or reinforce her ways of being, acting and thinking at school. Based on an ethnographic survey carried out in a French secondary school, our findings highlight Sarah’s taste for PE and for sport, is gradually taking shape, thanks to the support of her teacher. Moreover, while dispositional transformations have been observed in her investment in PE thanks to the persistence of her docility, an inertia to change remains concerning the acquisition of fine motor skills. Also, in practice, a triple division of gender, migration and language still persists in class.

Dose–response of tDCS effects on motor learning and cortical excitability: A preregistered study

Abstract Multiple studies have demonstrated that transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) of the primary motor cortex (M1) can influence corticospinal excitability and motor skill acquisition. However, the evidence for these effects is inconsistent, and a common neural substrate for these effects has not been directly demonstrated. To address this, we hypothesized that higher tDCS intensities would produce more robust effects, and uncover their relationship. In this preregistered study, 120 participants engaged in a motor skill learning task while receiving tDCS with posterior-to-anterior currents through M1. We employed a double-blind, between-subjects design, with groups of 4 mA, 6 mA, or sham stimulation, while ensuring balanced groups in terms of typing speed. Cortical excitability was assessed via motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) and TMS-evoked potentials (TEPs) before and after motor skill learning with concurrent tDCS. tDCS at these higher intensities was well tolerated, and motor learning correlated with pretraining typing speed. Planned analyses found no dose–response effect of tDCS on motor skill performance or MEP amplitude. This suggests that, under our experimental conditions, tDCS did not significantly modulate motor skill learning or corticospinal excitability. Furthermore, there was no correlation between motor performance and MEP, and thus no evidence for a common neural substrate. Exploratory analyses found an increase in MEP and TEP amplitudes following the sequence learning task. Motor skill gains positively correlated with TEP changes over the stimulated M1, which were more negative with increasing tDCS intensity. The effects of tDCS on motor skill learning and MEPs, if they exist, may require particular experimental conditions that have not been tested here. Preregistration: https://osf.io/jyuev (in-principle acceptance: 2024/06/05)

Exploring the relationship between motor development and entrepreneurial traits in childhood

Introduction: Children’s motor development is growing, with several studies seeking to understand its process, causes, and effects. The field of entrepreneurship has also experienced significant growth. Objective: Recognizing the importance of both areas, this research aims to verify the relationship between a child's motor development and entrepreneurial traits. Methodology: This is an exploratory case study using mixed methodologies. 37 students from the 1st and 3rd grade participated in this study. The Test of Gross Motor Development - 2 was used to determine the children's motor development. To assess entrepreneurial traits in children, observation and audio recording were conducted in three contexts: structured play, enriched recess, and storytelling. The observation was based on a script constructed according to the literature review. Results: When relating motor development to entrepreneurial traits, it was concluded that children with better motor development in the total raw score and object control motor skills tend to be those in the 3rd grade and those with lower propensity for inverse behaviour of "Self-Confidence" and "Persistence/Resistance to Failure." It was also found that children with better raw scores in locomotion motor skills are also those who, in the context of recess, have a greater tendency to exhibit positive behaviour of "Risk-taking," such as considering risks before acting or not being afraid of failure. Conclusion: Schools should integrate entrepreneurial education and motor skill development into curricula to prepare students not just for jobs, but to take initiative, solve complex problems, and adapt to changing circumstances throughout their lives.

Surmounting the ceiling effect of motor expertise by novel sensory experience with a hand exoskeleton.

For trained individuals such as athletes and musicians, learning often plateaus after extensive training, known as the "ceiling effect." One bottleneck to overcome it is having no prior physical experience with the skill to be learned. Here, we challenge this issue by exposing expert pianists to fast and complex finger movements that cannot be performed voluntarily, using a hand exoskeleton robot that can move individual fingers quickly and independently. Although the skill of moving the fingers quickly plateaued through weeks of piano practice, passive exposure to otherwise impossible complex finger movements generated by the exoskeleton robot at a speed faster than the pianists' fastest one enabled them to play faster. Neither a training for fast but simple finger movements nor one for slow but complex movements with the exoskeleton enhanced the overtrained motor skill. The exoskeleton training with one hand also improved the motor skill of the untrained contralateral hand, demonstrating the intermanual transfer effect. The training altered patterns of coordinated activities across multiple finger muscles during piano playing but not in general motor and somatosensory functions or in anatomical characteristics of the hand (range of motion). Patterns of the multifinger movements evoked by transcranial magnetic stimulation over the left motor cortex were also changed through passive exposure to fast and complex finger movements, which accompanied increased involvement of constituent movement elements characterizing the individuated finger movements. The results demonstrate evidence that somatosensory exposure to an unexperienced motor skill allows surmounting of the ceiling effect in a task-specific but effector-independent manner.

OPTIMALISASI KETERAMPILAN BERBAHASA INDONESIA DENGAN PROJECT-BASED LEARNING DI UPT SDN KADINGDING

This research aims to explore how implementing a project-based learning model can improve students' Indonesian language skills. With a more active and collaborative approach, it is hoped that students will not only master technical language skills, but can also apply them in a wider social and cultural context. This research aims to explore how implementing a project-based learning model can improve students' Indonesian language skills. With a more active and collaborative approach, it is hoped that students will not only master technical language skills, but can also apply them in a wider social and cultural context..This learning approach emphasizes students' active participation in designing, implementing, and presenting projects as a way to develop their knowledge and skills. The method used in this research is classroom action research (PTK) which is carried out in two cycles, each of which includes planning, implementation, and evaluation. The subjects in this research were fifth grade students at UPT SDN KADINGDING school year 2024/2025. The research results showed that the application of the project-based learning model was successful in improving students' Indonesian language skills, including speaking, writing, listening and reading skills. Students also show significant increases in motivation, creativity, and communication skills through the projects they undertake. Thus, the project-based learning model can be an effective choice for improving students' Indonesian language skills.

Musically Creative Pupils (Aged 6-11): Perspectives of Elementary Education Students

Based on the understanding of the domain generality and the specificity of musical creativity and its complex definition, the aim of our study was to examine the expression of a constructed set of characteristics of musically creative pupils at elementary school (aged 6-11 years) from the perspective of elementary education students, as well as to examine the factor structure of the characteristics of musically creative pupils. Elementary education students (n = 193) from the Faculty of Education, University of Maribor, participated in the research. A quantitative research approach with a non-experimental research method was followed. The exploratory factor analysis yielded five components that represent the structure of musically creative pupils’ characteristics: creativity, motivation, musical ability and performance skills, impetus, and agency. The implications of the research suggest usability in educational settings for identifying musically creative pupils and developing their potential. Further research may concern inter-faculty and international studies of perception of musically creative pupils from similar educational and cultural backgrounds.

EFICÁCIA DAS INTERVENÇÕES FISIOTERAPÊUTICAS NA REABILITAÇÃO DE PACIENTES PÓS-AVC EM AMBIENTE HOSPITALAR: UMA REVISÃO DE PRÁTICAS E RESULTADOS

The Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA) is one of the leading causes of disability and mortality worldwide, affecting millions of people annually and generating significant economic and social costs. The sequelae of a stroke, such as the loss of motor, cognitive, and emotional skills, compromise the patient's quality of life and functional independence. In this context, physiotherapy plays a crucial role in recovery, with techniques such as muscle strengthening, stretching, gait training, and sensory stimulation being essential to restore motor function and prevent complications such as muscle atrophy, pain, fatigue, and falls. Furthermore, intensive physiotherapy contributes to neuroplasticity by promoting brain reorganization and the formation of new neuronal connections. The application of these specific interventions, based on scientific evidence, is essential for improving rehabilitation outcomes and aiding in the recovery of lost functions, providing greater autonomy, well-being, confidence, functionality, and quality of life for post-stroke patients.

Decoding Success: The Role of E-Learning Readiness in Linking Technological Skills and Employability in Hospitality Management Graduates

Technological advancement alongside global epidemics stimulated the widescale implementation of e-learning. However, it is reported that e-learning is in the experimental phase and still requires fundamental improvements, particularly in disciplines that go beyond theoretical knowledge. The current study examines the nexus between e-learning readiness, psychological motivation, technological skills, and employability skills among hospitality management undergraduates. It also explores the moderating effects of student engagement on the linkages among these variables. To that end, this study adopted a quantitative approach and used a self-administered questionnaire survey to collect primary data. The sample included a total of 428 participants who were recruited from undergraduates of hospitality management programs in Egyptian universities using the convenience sampling technique. Data analysis included performing PLS-SEM using Smart PLS 3.0 software. The results confirm the positive effects of psychological motivation and technological skills on both e-learning readiness and the employability skills of hospitality management undergraduates. The study also underscores the mediated role of e-learning readiness in the linkages between study predictors and outcomes. Additionally, the findings highlight the moderating effect of student engagement in supporting e-learning readiness and eventually employability skills. This study adds to the hospitality management body of knowledge and provides valuable insights for education institutions and policymakers to optimize e-learning experiences.

Improvement of stereopsis following strabismus surgery in adults: a retrospective analysis.

Adults who undergo strabismus surgery, in addition to cosmesis, could benefit from improved stereopsis. This improvement is associated with the performance of motor skill tasks in young adults; they reduce the risk of tripping or falling during everyday locomotion and improve reading efficiency. This study aimed to assess stereopsis level after strabismus surgery in adults who underwent strabismus surgery for any reason. Retrospective observational study of adult patients who underwent strabismus surgery at our institution between 2010 and 2022. One hundred and thirty-two patients were included. Postoperatively, 48% had a stereo acuity better than 100 seconds of arc, and only 21.5% had no stereopsis. The most significant factor influencing improved stereopsis after surgery was the angle of strabismus postoperatively (p = 0.018). There was a statistically significant correlation between fusion at a distance and the stereo acuity (p = 0.0337). There was no statistically significant correlation between the stereo acuity level and the strabismus angle of deviation, the strabismus direction (vertical, horizontal, or combined), or the type (esotropia or exotropia) before or after the surgery. Although not statistically significant (p = 0.6579), the underlying cause categories were correlated with the stereo level. Patients with neurological causes demonstrated higher levels of stereopsis, followed by TED, whereas patients with childhood strabismus have the lowest probability of regaining stereopsis after surgery. Although long-standing strabismus reduces the potential for binocularity, surgery may be beneficial and improve stereopsis regardless of the cause of strabismus.

Application of Gross Motor Skills-Based and Conventional Learning Models to the Understanding of Mathematics Concepts in Grade 1 Elementary Schools in Karanganyar District

This research focuses on the application of gross motor skills-based and conventional learning models to the understanding of mathematical concepts in grade 1 elementary school (SD). The purpose of the research is to describe which is better between gross motor skills-based learning and conventional learning on understanding the concept of mathematics in grade 1 elementary school. The study population was grade 1 elementary school students in Karanganyar district. Research sampling using randam sampling. Data retrieval techniques using tests. Data analysis using two-way Anava with unequal cells. The results showed that the Anava test of two-way unequal cells obtained data that FHitung (43.52)> FTabel (3.84) and the marginal mean of the gross motoric learning model 88.18 was greater than the conventional learning model which had an average of 74.51. The conclusion of the research is that there is a difference between the two learning models and the gross motor skills learning model is better than conventional learning on understanding the concept of mathematics in grade 1 SD.

Product Feasibility of Developing a Learning Model for Counting in Elementary School Based on Motor Skills

The development of learning models needs to be done every time by taking into account the performance of students and technological developments. The purpose of this study is to describe the feasibility of product development of learning models for counting in elementary schools (SD) based on motor skills. The type of research is Research and Development using the ADDIE development model. The study population was fourth grade students in Karanganyar district, Central Java. Data collection through: limited trial, feasibility trial and hypothesis testing. The results of the study were limited tests obtained the number of scores obtained from teachers and students, namely 239 over the range 194.25≤x, so it can be concluded that the score is in the very feasible category; the feasibility test of the test results increased from 61.25 to 89.50; hypothesis testing obtained t count (19. 305) > t table (1.72913); experimental group hypothesis test t value (23.399) > t table (1.711) and control group t value (16.593) > t table (1.714), this shows that the learning model developed is feasible to be applied to mathematics learning. The conclusion of the research is that the development of a learning model for counting in elementary schools based on motor skills is categorized as feasible to be applied in learning mathematics.

Role of Cannabis in the Management of Chronic Non-Cancer Pain: A Narrative Review

Chronic non-cancer pain, defined by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) as lasting beyond three months, significantly affects individuals’ quality of life and is often linked to various medical conditions or injuries. Its management is complex. Cannabis, containing the key compounds Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), has garnered interest for its potential in pain management, though it remains controversial due to its psychoactive effects and illegal status in many countries. THC provides pain relief by blocking nociceptive stimuli but has psychoactive effects and may potentially induce dependency. CBD has calming and antipsychotic properties. The inhalation of cannabis offers quick relief but poses respiratory risks, while its oral administrations are safer but act more slowly. Short-term cannabis use can impair cognition and motor skills, while long-term use may lead to dependency and cognitive decline, especially if used from an early age. Adverse effects vary by gender and prior use, with addiction mainly linked to THC and influenced by genetics. Despite these risks, patients often report more benefits, such as improved quality of life and reduced opioid use, although the evidence remains inconclusive. The legal landscape for medical cannabis varies globally, with some positive public health outcomes like reduced opioid-related issues in areas where it is legalized. Cannabis shows promise in managing chronic pain, but its psychoactive effects and dependency risks necessitate cautious use. Future research should prioritize long-term clinical trials to establish optimal dosing, efficacy, and safety, aiding in the development of informed guidelines for safe cannabis use in chronic pain management. This review examines the use of cannabis in managing chronic non-cancer pain, focusing on its benefits, drawbacks, mechanisms, delivery methods, and impact on quality of life.