Motivational Hypothesis Research Articles

The beauty of conspiracy

ABSTRACT Why are people attracted to conspiracy theories? This essay conceives of conspiratorial motivation as an aesthetic phenomenon. To defend this account, I offer a coarse-grained taxonomy of contemporary motivational hypotheses that have been proposed to answer this question, describing their strengths and weaknesses. Next, I offer an aesthetic account of conspiratorial consumption; I argue that people’s preference for conspiratorial narratives is the product of a taste for a particular kind of story. To clarify the approach, I show how aesthetic appreciation is often confused with epistemic evaluation, leading the conspiracy theorist to believe she is involved in epistemic practice instead of aesthetic practice. I then describe the genre of conspiracy theorizing, explaining how my proposed genre account makes sense of several puzzles about conspiratorial consumption. The essay concludes by suggesting that the genre account offers a unique mode of engagement with conspiracy theorists that might be employed in order to profitably dialogue with those who hold these fringe and often dangerous beliefs.

"I Know it's Good to Do it": A Qualitative Study Exploring the Perspective of Autistic Men on Social Motivation.

The social motivation hypothesis states that people with Autism Spectrum Condition (ASC) have a diminished social motivation, that is (1) less priority in attention for objects of social importance, (2) diminished social reward, and (3) less desire to maintain and strengthen relationships. Little is known about the perception of autistic people on their social motivation. This study used semi-structured interviews to explore how eleven autistic men perceived their social motivation, behaviour, and interactions. In the interpretative phenomenological analysis, five themes were identified: (1) social network, (2) importance of social contact, (3) challenges regarding social contact, (4) conditionality of social contact, and (5) the struggle between importance, challenges and conditionality of social contact. Social motivation appeared to be a dynamic concept that varied between individuals and contexts. Most participants struggled between valuing social contact as important and the challenges they faced on a social level over the different contexts in which they participated. Even though elements of the social motivation hypothesis were recognized, the main finding was that this struggle seemed to be the source of the diminished social motivation that was observed in some of these men. Although more research is needed, the findings of this study could imply that social motivation might not be as straightforward for autistic men as described in the social motivation hypothesis.

Fear is more right lateralized than happiness and anger: Evidence for the motivational hypothesis of emotional face perception?

ABSTRACT Facial emotion processing (FEP) tends to be right hemisphere lateralized. This right-hemispheric bias (RHB) for FEP varies within and between individuals. The aim of the present research was to examine evidence pertaining to the prominent theories of FEP hemispheric bias as measured by a half-emotional half-neutral (no emotion) chimeric faces task. FEP hemispheric bias was indexed using laterality quotients (LQs) calculated from a Chimeric Faces Task completed by 427 adults recruited from the general population aged 18–67 years. Participants indicated which of two identical (but mirrored) emotional-neutral chimeric faces were more emotive. While all investigated emotions (fear, anger, and happiness) were right lateralized, fear was significantly more right lateralized than anger and happiness. These results provide evidence for both the right hemisphere hypothesis and the motivational hypothesis of emotion perception.

Putaminal dopamine modulates movement motivation in Parkinson's disease.

The relative inability to produce effortful movements is the most specific motor sign of Parkinson's disease, which is primarily characterized by loss of dopaminergic terminals in the putamen. The motor motivation hypothesis suggests that this motor deficit may not reflect a deficiency in motor control per se, but a deficiency in cost-benefit considerations for motor effort. For the first time, we investigated the quantitative effect of dopamine depletion on the motivation of motor effort in Parkinson's disease. A total of 21 early-stage, unmedicated patients with Parkinson's disease and 26 healthy controls were included. An incentivized force task was used to capture the amount of effort participants were willing to invest for different monetary incentive levels and dopamine transporter depletion in the bilateral putamen was assessed. Our results demonstrate that patients with Parkinson's disease applied significantly less grip force than healthy controls, especially for low incentive levels. Congruously, decrease of motor effort with greater loss of putaminal dopaminergic terminals was most pronounced for low incentive levels. This signifies that putaminal dopamine is most critical to motor effort when the trade-off with the benefit is poor. Taken together, we provide direct evidence that the reduction of effortful movements in Parkinson's disease depends on motivation and that this effect is associated with putaminal dopaminergic degeneration.

Individual differences in autonomy and sociotropy in relation to autistic traits, camouflaging and interpersonal functioning

The social motivation hypothesis has proposed that autism/autistic traits result developmentally from lower motivation to interact socially. However, counter to this hypothesis, a growing body of research on ‘camouflaging’ suggests many autistic people or those with high autistic traits work hard to appear more ‘neurotypical’ to foster friendships. “Sociotropy/dependency” and “autonomy/self-reliance” characterise different attachment styles. Despite their importance for understanding interpersonal functioning, their relationship with autistic traits and camouflaging is unknown. To investigate this question in 168 participants (71 % females, Mean age = 30; SD = 10), we used online self-reported measures including depressive and social anxiety (i.e. affective) symptoms. A large fraction of variability in interpersonal functioning and camouflaging in the respective models was explained (R-square: 0.40 and 0.50, respectively). Autistic traits and autonomy were both negatively and independently associated with interpersonal functioning (β = −0.23, p = .002 and β = −0.14, p = .045, respectively) after controlling for the influence of sociotropy and affective symptoms. Furthermore, sociotropy was independently associated with camouflaging (β = 0.22, p = .001) after controlling for autonomy and affective symptoms. This may suggest that social motivation is dissociable from autistic traits which could explain why a subgroup of people with autistic traits is highly motivated to camouflage.

Working with a chronic health condition: The implications of proactive vitality management for occupational health and performance

Employees with a chronic disease are confronted with health problems, pain, and a limited energy reserve, which may hinder their day-to-day functioning at work. In the current study, we use proactive motivation and job demands-resources (JD-R) theories to hypothesize that chronically ill individuals may optimize their own well-being and work performance by using proactive vitality management (PVM). In Study 1, we tested our hypotheses through multigroup comparative analyses among a mixed sample of both healthy and chronically ill employees who participated in a weekly, three-wave study (T1 N = 399, M age = 45.18 (SD = 13.13), 48 % female). In Study 2, employees with a chronic liver disease were followed over the course of 2,5 years and filled out surveys at three points in time (T1 N = 192, M age = 48.73 (SD = 10.75), 72 % female). Findings from both studies were in line with our hypotheses. More specifically, consistent with JD-R theory's health impairment hypothesis, results showed that exhaustion mediated the relation between PVM and (a) functional limitations and (b) absenteeism. Consistent with JD-R's motivational hypothesis, work engagement mediated the relation between PVM and (a) creative work performance and (b) absenteeism. In addition, results of moderated mediation analyses indicated that these indirect effects were stronger for chronically ill employees with more (vs. less) self-insight – i.e., a developed understanding of one's own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. These findings contribute to JD-R and proactive motivation theories and suggest that PVM is an important behavioral strategy that may protect chronically ill employees' occupational health and promote their performance, especially when combined with self-insight.

Anthroponyms of Non-Slavic Origin in the Acts of the Solovetsky Monastery (Part I)

The article is the first in a planned series investigating anthroponyms of non-Slavic origin found in the Acts of the Solovetsky Monastery, a published source that vividly chronicles the history of the White Sea region in the 15th–16th centuries. The study focuses on the first volume, which contains 428 charters (1479–1571) and includes at least 80 anthroponyms of non-Slavic origin. This article examines a subset of 15 names from this corpus. The anthroponyms are analyzed within a broad etymological framework, incorporating proposed appellative parallels, motivational hypotheses, typological arguments, and the authors’ reflections on existing interpretations of specific names. The research methodology, informed by substantial prior work on the anthroponymy of the European North of Russia, is outlined in detail in the introduction. The findings reveal that most non-Slavic anthroponyms appear within “Russian-type” patronymics, combined with Orthodox calendar names or their derivatives (e.g., Kuzemka Fedorov Valuev, Vlasko Oshmuev, Semyon Ivanov Sulgopyaev’s son). This pattern highlights the significant Christianization and subsequent Russification of parts of the non-Slavic population in the White Sea region during this period. Nevertheless, the persistence of foreign-language anthroponymic systems is evident in certain individual names. The analysis of the origins of these anthroponyms indicates a strong prevalence of Balto-Finnic names, alongside occasional Turkic elements (*Baiguz and possibly Kudash) and rare examples of probably Sami origin (Chyukhcha and possibly *Nuzcha). Based on the ethnonymic landscape described in the introduction, most Balto-Finnic anthroponyms can be assumed to be of Karelian origin.

Abnormal functional connectivity of the reward network is associated with social communication impairments in autism spectrum disorder: A large-scale multi-site resting-state fMRI study

BackgroundThe social motivation hypothesis proposes that the social deficits of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are related to reward system dysfunction. However, functional connectivity (FC) patterns of the reward network in ASD have not been systematically explored yet. MethodsThe reward network was defined as eight regions of interest (ROIs) per hemisphere, including the nucleus accumbens (NAc), caudate, putamen, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), amygdala, and insula. We computed both the ROI-wise resting-state FC and seed-based whole-brain FC in 298 ASD participants and 348 typically developing (TD) controls from the Autism Brain Imaging Data Exchange I dataset. Two-sample t-tests were applied to obtain the aberrant FCs. Then, the association between aberrant FCs and clinical symptoms was assessed with Pearson's correlation or Spearman's correlation. In addition, Neurosynth Image Decoder was used to generate word clouds verifying the cognitive functions of the aberrant pathways. Furthermore, a three-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to examine the effects of gender, subtype and age on the atypical FCs. ResultsFor the within network analysis, the left ACC showed weaker FCs with both the right amygdala and left NAc in ASD compared with TD, which were negatively correlated with the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) total scores and Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) total scores respectively. For the whole-brain analysis, weaker FC (i.e., FC between the left vmPFC and left calcarine gyrus, and between the right vmPFC and left precuneus) accompanied by stronger FC (i.e., FC between the left caudate and right insula) were exhibited in ASD relative to TD, which were positively associated with the SRS motivation scores. Additionally, we detected the main effect of age on FC between the left vmPFC and left calcarine gyrus, of subtype on FC between the right vmPFC and left precuneus, of age and age-by-gender interaction on FC between the left caudate and right insula. ConclusionsOur findings highlight the crucial role of abnormal FC patterns of the reward network in the core social deficits of ASD, which have the potential to reveal new biomarkers for ASD.

Gwarowe nazwy roślin derywowane semantycznie od nazw chorób

DIALECT PLANT NAMES SEMANTICALLY DERIVED FROM NAMES OF DISEASES It is possible to distinguish three groups among dialect phytonyms derived from names of diseases:1) names which originated from names of diseases due to the process of neosemantisation, 2) names morphologically derived from names of diseases, 3) collocations a) with the name of the disease, b) with an adjective derived from the name of the disease. In the article phytonyms from the first group have been analyzed and the focus is on determining their semantic motivations and thusdepicting the factors which underlie the nomination processes that led to their appearance. In the most typical situation neosemantisation is motivated by the purpose i.e. for the treatment of which disease or ailment the plant was used for. Other motivational hypotheses are primarily connected with the look of the plant or its specific part which may resemble a disease symptom (as it is in the case of kołtun and similar names) or trigger more indirect associations with diseases (like in the case of names of the kind ślepota and kurza ślepota).

The Influence of Using WhatsApp Media on Motivation and Science Learning Outcomes during Online Learning

Learning motivation serves as a significant driving force for students, as it encompasses their engagement in learning activities, ensures the continuity of these activities, and provides direction towards achieving desired goals. The primary objective of this study was to examine the impact of WhatsApp usage on students' motivation to learn science, its influence on science learning outcomes, and its effect on both motivation and learning outcomes before and after using WhatsApp. The research was conducted among 5th grade students in the Se'seng cluster, Tana Toraja Regency. The population consisted of 95 students from SDN Gugus Se'seng. The study employed a pre-experimental model with a one-group pretest-posttest design. Prior to the treatment, a pretest was administered to assess the group's initial condition, followed by a post-test after the treatment to evaluate the group's condition post-intervention. Descriptive statistical analysis and inferential statistical analysis using SPSS 24 were employed in this study. The descriptive analysis of learning motivation among 5th grade students in the Se'seng cluster indicated an average score of 54.1667 during online learning. This average score suggests that students' motivation is still below the desired expectation of 65. In accordance with the learning process and cognitive characteristics, students were evaluated to measure their learning outcomes. The students' initial abilities were determined through a pretest, with an average score of 53.3333 in the descriptive analysis. This demonstrates that students' pretest abilities were still low and did not meet the required minimum passing grade of 75. The results of the learning motivation hypothesis test showed a t-value of -5.801, with a significance of 0.000 (p < 0.05), indicating that the use of WhatsApp media in online learning did not have a significant impact on students' learning motivation. However, based on the results of the t-test, it was determined that learning through WhatsApp media had an effect on the learning outcomes of 5th grade students in the Se'seng cluster.

Work Motivation Is Not Generational but Depends on Age and Period

Many argue that work motivation varies with year of birth, suggesting the utility of generational labels such as Z, Y, X, or Baby Boomer. This article tests this generational hypothesis by using multilevel regressions with data from 584,217 individuals sampled by the Integrated Values Survey in 113 countries over more than 30 years. The results show that the importance of work first increases and then decreases with an individual’s age and that the importance of work tends to decrease for everyone with the passing of historical time. These age and period effects make later-born generations seem work averse, while birth year and thus generational membership hardly explain work motivation after accounting for age and period effects. The article also tests whether ten other work-related attitudes can be explained through generational membership. The results suggest that the historical time period and an individual’s life course explain work motivation and work attitudes better than generational membership. This life course and historical explanation is suggested as an alternative to the generational hypothesis of work motivation and attitudes that prevails in much of the literature.

The Effect of Computational-Based Learning Media Using the STAD Type Cooperative Model on Student Learning Outcomes and Motivation on the Subject of Intermolecular Forces

This study aims to determine the effect of computational chemistry-based learning media using the STAD type cooperative learning model on student learning outcomes and motivation on the subject of forces between molecules. The population in this study were grade X students in high schools in Medan city which amounted to 7 classes. The samples of this study were students of class X IPA 3 and X IPA 5, each of which amounted to 36 students. The research instruments used were test instruments in the form of 20 multiple choice questions and non-test in the form of 30 statements. The quality of the research instrument was tested using validity, reliability, difficulty level of questions and differentiating power to determine the questions that would be used as instruments in the study. The data analysis technique shows that in the learning outcomes hypothesis test, the t-count> t-table value is 5.03>1.666 and the results of the learning motivation hypothesis test, the t-count> t-table value is 3.12>1.666. This data shows that there is an effect of computational chemistry-based learning media using the STAD type cooperative learning model on student learning outcomes and motivation on the subject of forces between molecules.

Vicarious facilitation of facial responses to pain.

Observing facial expressions of pain has been shown to lead to increased subjective, neural and autonomic pain responses. Surprisingly, these vicarious facilitation effects on its corresponding response channel, namely facial responses to pain have mostly been neglected. We aim to examine whether the prior exposure to facial expressions of pain leads to a facilitation of facial responses to experimental pain; and whether this facilitation is linked to the valence (pain vs. neutral expression) or also linked to specific motor-features of the facial pain expressions (different facial muscle movements). Subjective (intensity and unpleasantness ratings) and facial responses (Facial Action Coding System) of 64 participants (34 female) to painful and non-painful heat stimuli were assessed. Before each heat stimulus, video clips of computer-generated facial expressions (three different pain expressions and a neutral expression) were presented. The prior exposure to facial expressions of pain led to increased subjective and facial responses to pain. Further, vicarious pain facilitation of facial responses was significantly correlated with facilitation of unpleasantness ratings. We also found evidence that this vicarious facilitation of facial responses was not only linked to the presentation of pain versus neutral expressions but also to specific motor-features of the pain cue (increase in congruent facial muscle movements). Vicarious pain facilitation was found for subjective and facial responses to pain. The results are discussed with reference to the motivational priming hypothesis as well as with reference to motor priming. Our study uncovers evidence that facial pain responses are not only influenced by motivational priming (similar to other types of pain responses), but also by motor-priming. These findings shed light on the complexity - ranging from social, affective and motor mechanisms - underling vicarious facilitation of pain.

Cross-temporal relations of conditional risk perception measures with protective actions against COVID-19

Two decades ago a research team clarified that cross-sectional associations of risk perceptions and protective behavior can only test an “accuracy” hypothesis: e.g., people with higher risk perceptions at Ti should also exhibit low protective behavior and/or high risky behavior at Ti. They argued that these associations are too often interpreted wrongly as testing two other hypotheses, only testable longitudinally: the “behavioral motivation” hypothesis, that high risk perception at Ti increases protective behavior at Ti+1, and the “risk reappraisal” hypothesis, that protective behavior at Ti reduces risk perception at Ti+1. Further, this team argued that risk perception measures should be conditional (e.g., personal risk perception if one's behavior does not change). Yet these theses have garnered relatively little empirical testing. An online longitudinal panel study of U.S. residents' COVID-19 views across six survey waves over 14 months in 2020–2021 tested these hypotheses for six behaviors (hand washing, mask wearing, avoiding travel to infected areas, avoiding large public gatherings, vaccination, and [for five waves] social isolation at home). Accuracy and behavioral motivation hypotheses were supported for both behaviors and intentions, excluding a few waves (particularly in February–April 2020, when the pandemic was new in the U.S.) and behaviors. The risk reappraisal hypothesis was contradicted—protective behavior at one wave increased risk perception later—perhaps reflecting continuing uncertainty about efficacy of COVID-19 protective behaviors and/or that dynamic infectious diseases may yield different patterns than chronic diseases dominating such hypothesis-testing. These findings raise intriguing questions for both perception-behavior theory and behavior change practice.

Learning progress mediates the link between cognitive effort and task engagement

While a substantial body of work has shown that cognitive effort is aversive and costly, a separate line of research on intrinsic motivation suggests that people spontaneously seek challenging tasks. According to one prominent account of intrinsic motivation, the learning progress motivation hypothesis, the preference for difficult tasks reflects the dynamic range that these tasks yield for changes in task performance (Kaplan & Oudeyer, 2007). Here we test this hypothesis, by asking whether greater engagement with intermediately difficult tasks, indexed by subjective ratings and objective pupil measurements, is a function of trial-wise changes in performance. In a novel paradigm, we determined each individual's capacity for task performance and used difficulty levels that are low, intermediately challenging or high for that individual. We demonstrated that challenging tasks resulted in greater liking and engagement scores compared with easy tasks. Pupil size tracked objective task difficulty, where challenging tasks were associated with greater pupil responses than easy tasks. Most importantly, pupil responses were predicted by trial-to-trial changes in average accuracy as well as learning progress (derivative of average accuracy), while greater pupil responses also predicted greater subjective engagement scores. Together, these results substantiate the learning progress motivation hypothesis stating that the link between task engagement and cognitive effort is mediated the dynamic range for changes in task performance.

Economic policy uncertainty, geopolitical risk and cash holdings: evidence from Saudi Arabia

PurposeThis study aims to investigate the influence of economic policy uncertainty (EPU) and geopolitical risk (GPR) on corporate cash holding level and speed of adjustment (SOA) in one of the most important emerging markets in the Middle East and North Africa, Saudi Arabia. It also investigates whether Shariah-compliance as well as financial constraints affect the relationship between both EPU and GPR and corporate cash holdings.Design/methodology/approachThe study employs GMM regression considering a sample of 140 nonfinancial firms drawn from the Saudi stock market over the period 2002 to 2019.FindingsThe authors find evidence in support of the precautionary motive hypothesis. Facing costly external financing induced by economic policy-related uncertainty and geopolitical tension, Saudi firms tend to accumulate cash as a buffer against negative shocks to their cash flows. The results also show that the positive impact of EPU and GPR on the level of cash holding is less pronounced in Shariah-compliant firms, whereas it is more pronounced in more financially constrained firms. Evidence also reveals that the estimated adjustment coefficients show that Saudi firms adjust more quickly toward their target cash ratio in periods of high economic instability and geopolitical risks.Practical implicationsThis study has important implications for managers, policymakers and regulators. For managers, the study is an important reference to understand and design cash management policies by considering factors measured at the country level. More specifically, managers should pay more attention to periods of heightened uncertainties and geopolitical tensions in which the availability of funds is reduced. For policymakers and regulators, this study may be useful in assessing the effect of economic instability on firm’s cash holding decision. Therefore, in an effort to increase the supply of external financing available to firms, policymakers may devise investment friendly environment by controlling country-specific factors.Originality/valueThis paper shows how EPU and GPR as institutional environment factors affect cash holding decision in an oil-rich country.

Next-Gen Mulsemedia: Virtual Reality Haptic Simulator’s Impact on Medical Practitioner for Higher Education Institutions

Immersive technology is one of the emerging trends in education in the twenty-first century, whether that be university training programs, or real-world technical training. However, there has been very little research into the effects and consequences of virtual reality. Various types of eLearning have been used to transmit information in recent years, and especially for medical education, virtual reality plays a vital role in terms of providing effective training; the virtual reality app bridged the gap between traditional learning and practical exposure. This unified reality environment enables users to simulate real-life scenarios and obtain useful information that would otherwise be unavailable. In the real world, it is difficult to grasp. In India’s education sector, virtual reality technology is also being researched at an early stage. The goal of this research paper is to assess and explain the impact of virtual reality simulators on medical students’ desire to learn. In the classroom, the core motivation hypothesis is used to boost motivation. The attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction (ARCS) model influenced the interpretation of virtual reality’s impact on student motivation and content update implementation. The study examined the numerous variables of virtual reality simulators and their impact on medical education, using the ARCS model as a factor analysis. According to the study, students wsould learn more and be more motivated if virtual reality simulators were used. Attention, relevance, satisfaction, and confidence indicators were used to develop motivational variables, and the results were significant. We have taken the sample of 607 students’ data for this analysis, through which we have identified the potential of VR made available to students, as well as the faculty, which has the potential to transform medical education. Instructors may be wary of incorporating new technology like VR into their curriculums, but with the support of their students’ learning habits, this may not be a problem. It may help instructors feel more confident, while also enhancing the relationship between faculty, librarians, and students.

Research on the Mechanism of the Impact of M&A Motivation on M&A Performance

Under China’s financial supervision system, the financial industry gradually tries to merge and acquire in order to achieve the strategic goal of industrial integration and economic transformation, and maintain a state of continuous rising profitability. M&A, as an important means to reallocate resources in the capital market, has a far-reaching impact on enterprises and is also a hot issue in the field of corporate finance research in recent years. Because of the complexity of M&A activities, the identification of M&A motives is particularly important for the study of M&A performance and related issues. However, the previous research lacks a systematic study of M&A motivation and its influence on M&A performance from the perspective of “agent”. Therefore, based on the existing M&A theories and the actual situation in China, this article studies the relationship between managers’ agent M&A motivation and M&A performance from the perspective of “agents”. This article innovatively introduces a compensation mechanism to study the impact of agent M&A motivation on M&A performance, which can obtain whether agent M&A motivation damages corporate value, and can also understand whether executives seek private benefits through M&A, providing evidence for the agent motivation hypothesis from multiple perspectives.

Meritocracy and the Motivation Hypothesis Why Meritocracy is an Incorrect Theory of Human Effort

Meritocracy and the Motivation Hypothesis Why Meritocracy is an Incorrect Theory of Human Effort

In Context: A Developmental Model of Reward Processing, With Implications for Autism and Sensitive Periods

Differences in reward processing have been associated with numerous psychiatric disorders, including autism and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Many attempts to understand reward processing characterize differences in clinical populations after disorder onset; however, divergence may begin much earlier. In fact, the typical developmental progression of reward processing in infancy and early childhood is poorly understood. We re-conceptualize classic infant developmental constructs such as preferential looking into a Six-Component Developmental Model of Reward Processing: an infant- and young child-focused framework to guide research and assessment of reward processing across development. The extant developmental literature including recent textbooks, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses was reviewed to build a conceptual framework. We describe experimental paradigms to assess each developmental component of reward processing longitudinally from infancy. A timeline of each component's emergence was estimated. Six components of reward processing were identified-association, discrimination, preference/valuation, effort, anticipation, and response. Selected evidence suggests emergence between birth and 6 months. Application of this model to autism led to a reinterpretation of existing disparate results, and illuminated a path to study the developmental processes underlying a popular hypothesis of autism, the motivation hypothesis. Current evidence further suggests that a sensitive period may exist for the emergence of reward processing. The proposed framework offers a useful reconceptualization of the extant literature. Future longitudinal work using the suggested experimental paradigms with high-risk populations could elucidate the developmental trajectory of the components and timing of potential sensitive period(s) for each component.