Moral Rationalism Research Articles

Moral Rationalization Contributes More Strongly to Escalation of Unethical Behavior Among Low Moral Identifiers Than Among High Moral Identifiers.

Occasional acts of immorality are commonplace. One way in which people deal with their own prior immoral acts, is to rationalize why their acts are morally acceptable. It has been argued that such post hoc moral rationalizations may contribute to continuation or escalation of immoral behavior. This paper experimentally tests this causal influence of post hoc moral argumentation on escalation of immoral behavior and also tests how this depends on people’s level of moral identity. In three experiments we asked participants to generate moral arguments for their past behaviors. The results show that engaging in moral rationalization causes subsequent continuation and escalation of previous immoral behavior, but more so for low moral identifiers than for high moral identifiers.

Gendered moral rationalities in later life: grandparents balancing paid work and care of grandchildren in Australia

AbstractIn recent years there has been increasing policy focus on keeping mature-age people engaged in the labour market. At the same time, grandparents play an important role as regular child-care providers for many families. Yet, little research has explored how grandparents negotiate these dual, often competing demands of paid employment and intergenerational care. Drawing on focus groups with 23 grandparents and an online survey of 209 grandparents providing regular child care for their grandchildren in Australia, this paper addresses this gap in the literature by examining how Australian grandparents experience and negotiate competing responsibilities as older workers and intergenerational care providers. The paper draws on the concept of gendered moral rationalities to examine the way in which grandparents’ decisions about participation in paid work are deeply embedded in idealised forms of parenting and grandparenting that are highly gendered. The paper suggests that, as the rate of both maternal and mature-age participation in the paid labour market continues to rise, inadequate attention is being paid to how time spent undertaking unpaid care is compressed, reorganised and redistributed across genders and generations as a result.

How Consumers Justify Their Unethical Behavior: The Role of Moral Recognition Strategies (Moral Rationalization, and Decoupling), Complemented by Culture, on the Purchase of Counterfeits in Pakistan.

Moral recognition, defined as an individual’s interpretation of a situation as a moral dilemma. However, individuals will not constantly interpret situations as a moral dilemma in the same way with the same intensity under all conditions. literature suggests that when two conditions of moral recognition are met (Moral rationalization, and decoupling), individuals will interpret a situation as a moral dilemma differently. In Moral rationalization, individuals use to reconstruct immoral actions into less immoral actions. Thus, allows them to violate moral principles while preserving some semblance of being Moral like purchasing counterfeits due to their low prices. Here, consumers are more likely to be benefit-seeking by restructuring their actions to be less immoral, i.e. searching for a relevant justification for morality (involving moral justification, euphemistic language, advantageous comparison, displacement of responsibility, diffusion of responsibility, distortion of consequences, attribution of blame; Bandura et al.1996), coordinating justification with situations, and reaching a judgment. Moral decoupling is defined as the psychological process chosen to defend improper conduct, by which one separates judgments of performance from judgments of morality (Bhattacharjee et al.2013). When individuals adopt this strategy, they focus on the social benefits (i.e., image, status consumption, etc.) and economic benefits (i.e., perceived fashion content, physical appearance, performance, scarcity, etc.). Chen et. al. (2018) linked these two strategies in an empirical assessment to explore the effect of dimensions of moral recognition (moral rationalization and moral decoupling) on counterfeit purchases mediated by moral judgment and perceived benefits respectively. We modified the Chen model with the complementary effect of materialistic culture in this relationship. We argue that moral recognition firstly affects counterfeit purchase (CP) through Moral rationalization, and then through moral judgment in a two-step mediation. Secondly, through moral decoupling and further through perceived benefits. Thirdly, directly affecting CP complemented by materialistic culture as a moderator. Empirical validity was established by conducting a survey using a close-ended questionnaire. Data was collected from 230 consumers and analyzed using confirmatory factor analysis and structured equation modeling. The results suggested that moral recognition seems to limit purchase intention (PI) directly. Similarly, it neutralizes Moral Rationalization (MR), and Decoupling (MD) behaviors. Moreover, MR tends to positively affect PI both directly, and well as indirectly through moral judgment (MJ). Similarly, MD also has a direct and positive effect on PI, as well as perceived benefits (PB), however, PB and PI relationship was not substantiated. Hence, MR seems to negatively affect PI through MD, as well as through MR and MJ as a first and second-order mediator. Lastly, materialism seems to promote counterfeit purchase, at the same time positively complement the effect of MR on PI, in a way that MR would have a more pronounced effect on PI in case of the higher materialistic consumer.

Моральные дилеммы, эмотивизм и рационализация эмоций

Моральные дилеммы, эмотивизм и рационализация эмоций

Figures of Speech: Six Histories of Language and Identity in the Age of Revolutions by Tim Cassedy

Reviewed by: Figures of Speech: Six Histories of Language and Identity in the Age of Revolutions by Tim Cassedy Sean P. Harvey (bio) Keywords Language, Cultural history, Linguistics, Speech, Writing Figures of Speech: Six Histories of Language and Identity in the Age of Revolutions. By Tim Cassedy. (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2018. Pp. 296. Paper, $40.00.) In Figures of Speech, Tim Cassedy examines the political, social, and cultural significance of the view, axiomatic in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, that languages shaped the minds and characters of their speakers. It is a cultural history, informed by the history of the book and media studies, that focuses on the lives of five men and one woman who "put language at the center of their identities and lived out the possibilities of their era's linguistic ideas" in an era of political upheaval (6). The book's first chapter focuses on Nicholas Dufief, a young aristocrat who fled revolution in France and St.-Domingue. Taking refuge in Philadelphia, he established himself as a teacher of French and writer of pedagogical texts by inventing, publicizing, and selling a mode of instruction that aimed to replicate the way children learned language. Chapter 2 [End Page 364] contrasts the orthographic reform efforts of Noah Webster and the Scot–Caribbean Duncan Mackintosh. Where the linguistic separatist Webster urged U.S. citizens to adopt spelling reforms to make American English distinct from that of the former mother country, Mackintosh, after the British invasion of Martinique in 1794, urged Anglophones across the world to standardize English pronunciation through use of his elaborate system of diacritical marks. While both projects failed, Cassedy shows that most Americans were more sympathetic to the "linguistic unionism" that animated the latter (72). English was a "technology of imperial assimilation" (88) for British subjects, but Americans rejected linguistic distinctness "to preserve a connection to values, thoughts, and feelings that they did not want to lose" (111). The third chapter focuses on the East India Company employee John Gilchrist. Best known as the philologist who introduced the company and other Europeans to the most widely spoken vernaculars of the sub-continent (Hindi and Urdu), he spent several decades devising a universal character that could represent sounds in all languages, casting it in type, and designing a remarkable "abecedarian clock" that would have mechanically produced each sound when its hand struck the character that Gilchrist had assigned it. Gilchrist intended his inventions to achieve political reform in Britain through the "diffusion of rational liberty, commerce, morality, and religion" (132). Chapter 4 centers on the English typecaster Edmund Fry, who produced a collection of specimens of more than two hundred modes of writing. The effort, which Cassedy estimates entailed some 10,000 hours of skilled labor in carving and casting type, illustrated the proficiency and range of Fry's typecasting business, but Fry also pitched it as a philological tool (147). In severing "the shapes and sounds of language" from meaning, Cassedy argues, Pantographia (1799) pushed its audience to affirm pre-existing opinions about peoples (151). The final chapter focuses on Mary Willcocks, an abused Englishwoman who, for a time, successfully posed as Caraboo, a kidnapped and stranded Polynesian princess, by speaking and writing an invented language that fooled Bristol officials and the local gentry. Although eventually discovered, the ruse allowed her to avoid institutionalization, gained her a patron, and provided the basis for a brief but sensational stint as a celebrity in Philadelphia and New York. These brief descriptions do not do justice to the textured accounts of lives and linguistic projects that Cassedy provides. Figures of Speech is a wonderfully written and deeply engaging study of linguistic lives in the [End Page 365] Revolutionary-era United States and British Empire. The book is also well structured. Examining discrete lives in separate chapters provides the reader with rich, compelling accounts of how individuals used language toward idiosyncratic ends, and Cassedy frequently pauses to draw surprising connections between his subjects or to lead the reader through points of comparison and contrast. Cassedy, and University of Iowa Press, must also be commended for taking the effort to reproduce his subjects' several orthographies. The...

A Case for How Eschatological and Soteriological Considerations Strengthen the Plausibility of a Good God

This article contends that considerations of continued human existence beyond this earthly life are advantageous both for defending against a key challenge to the existence of a good God (the evidential problem of evil) and for making a positive moral case for theism. On the defensive side, I address the charge that the amount and alleged gratuitousness of evil render God’s existence unlikely. On the offensive side, I leverage postmortem considerations to bolster a positive case for a good God by offering new arguments that God and an afterlife are key to making sense of moral rationality and morality’s overridingness.

ON HEAVY PENALTY FOR INTERNATIONAL HOMICIDE

The crime of intentional homicide in criminal law of various countries is the first mission. Domestic scholars focus attention on the crime of intentional homicide at normative level and legal philosophy level. Author conducts inspection of intentional homicide from four aspects: аt the normative level, expands the crime ladder of Beccaria, and explains the function of criminal law sentenced to felony for committing homicide; аt the crime level, explains the necessity of killing penalties from anthropological and sociological level; аt the philosophical level, discusses the philosophical presupposition of punishing on homicide from moral and legal responsibility; аt the political level, discusses the inevitability of homicide in elements of nature before the modern society. The author i explains in the article the purpose of criminal law on human right’s protection. The legal protection of the right to life is bound to be a category of moral rationality. Therefore, the protection of the victim’s right of life should belong to the category of criminal law. Key words: intentional homicide, crime, responsibility, protection of victims, national fines.

Practical Reason? Salomon Maimon and the Problem of Moral Presentation

This essay argues that Salomon Maimon's moral philosophy is held together by the same skeptical questioning about the "presentation" of the rational in the sensible that holds together his critique of Kant's account of experience. Granting that Kant has identified the form of rational morality, Maimon asks, 1) how is it possible for this rational form to cause or to apply to actions in a sensible realm otherwise governed by drives and inclinations (quid juris)? and 2) where can we point to an actual presentation of rational morality among the otherwise exclusively inclination-driven human strivings for ends (quid facti)?

도덕적 이성주의에 대한 허치슨의 반박

도덕적 이성주의에 대한 허치슨의 반박

RECEPTION OF ETHICS OF DISCOURSE IN MODERN PHILOSOPHY

The article analyzes the theoretical foundations of the modern project of rational ethics, in which the ethics of discourse is interpreted as a critical theory of society and a critic of modern morality. I. Kant was one of the first to offer the possibility of generalizing the norms of morality and perception of ethics as a transcendental critique of morality. Neo-Kantianism develops ethics as the most important part of the philosophical system and fixes its scope by the idealistic theory of morality (H. Cohen, P. Natorp). In Russian philosophy, modern ethics is perceived as a normative theory that has to do with issues of self-determination, moral regulation, and freedom of choice. The origins of discourse ethics in the philosophy of the 20th century go back to the “pragmatic turn” and to vigorous discussions about hermeneutics of language and its a priori status in German philosophy, and in analytical philosophy regarding the understanding of metaetics. The modern program of ethics of discourse receives meaningful justification as the logic of moral argumentation in the social philosophy of J. Habermas and in the transcendental pragmatics K.-O. Apel. The ethics of discourse is born from the real need to justify moral requirements and norms. Ethics as a critique of moral argument is associated with the pre-reflexive horizon of the life world, why it is a deontological, formalistic and universal ethics. Two significant projects of discourse ethics, presented in the article as an analysis, should be defined as “weak and strong” variants of philosophical transcendental idealism in modern science.

Constraining temptation: How specific and general rules mitigate the effect of personal gain on unethical behavior

Rules are often installed in order to constrain unethical behavior. Rules can be framed either in specific (“Don’t accepts gifts from clients.”) or general terms (“Don’t engage in conflicts of interest.”). The current investigation examines the effect of specific and general rules on unethical behavior and how this effect depends on personal gain resulting from the unethical behavior. The results of three preregistered experiments suggest that both specific and general rules counteract the increase in unethical behavior induced by high personal gain. Although the results were not fully consistent across all studies, specific rules appear more successful in doing this than general rules. In Studies 1 and 3, when personal gain from unethical behavior was (extremely) high, specific rules were more successful in reducing unethical behavior than were general rules. Results of Study 2 suggest that the larger effect of specific rules (compared to general rules) is caused by specific rules preventing people from engaging in moral rationalizations that justify their unethical behavior. A meta-analysis across all studies confirms this overall pattern. This research contributes to theory on rules, ethical codes, and the influence of personal incentives from unethical behavior.

Emotions theory in Nietzsche: beyond traditional Dualism

In recent years there has been the advance of theories aimed at broadening the reflection on emotions and influences on moral aspects. In the midst of this discussion, the essay aims to investigate Nietzsche's philosophical for the critique of the reason versus emotion. As results, it is pointed out that Nietzsche preceded empirical psychology in centuries. If studies in the field of neuroscience bring inferences from explanations of physiology in the rational, Nietzsche pointed out to these hypotheses, although by purely logical and rational means. In short, the innovations in the author's thinking contribute to dialogue with the emotion’s theory, as well as to counteract the ethical rationality superimposed on affects.

Rodinná politika a formální a neformální péče o předškolní děti ve vybraných státech Evropy

The article focuses on the use of childcare for preschool-age children in 13 European countries with different models of maternal employment. Employing a comparative approach it relates care arrangements to family policy measures. Childcare policies and practices in post-communist countries (the Czech Republic, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia) are compared in a wider European context and specifically to various countries representing the principal types of welfare state and family policy strategies in Europe (the United Kingdom, Germany, Austria, Italy, France, Spain, and Sweden). The article focuses on parental leave schemes, parental employment, and formal childcare and takes into account informal childcare, which in many countries is crucial to achieving a work-life balance. The authors' findings reveal that the use of informal childcare is not directly related to either the length of paid parental leave or maternal employment. Informal childcare, which in most cases is provided by grandparents, is used on a weekly basis for at least thirty per cent of preschool-age children in all the post-communist countries studied except Bulgaria. However, similarly high levels of informal childcare were also found in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Austria. Gendered moral rationalities based on cultural norms play an important role in division of childcare in each European state.

Renovating the Roman Colosseum: Politics, urban restructuring, and the value of heritage in neoliberal times

ABSTRACTThe paper presents debates over two renovations of the Roman Colosseum between 2011 and 2015, within a broader historical and political context, as prisms through which we can explore the entanglements of neoliberal politics, urban restructuring, and the ways in which heritage is being valued. With reference to the criticisms of art historian Tomaso Montanari, archaeologist Salvatore Settis, and anthropologist Michael Herzfeld, the current study examines the political, aesthetic, and ethical rationalities inscribed in the renovations of the Colosseum and the spatial organisation of the city more generally. The paper concludes by outlining how new forms of political populism in Italy, feeding on the discontents of neoliberalism, have placed heritage at the centre of intensely contested questions of citizenship and national identity.

Rationalism in Sally Gadow’s Anti-Rationalist Nursing Ethics

Carol Gilligan’s seminal critique of Kohlberg’s model of human moral development set on course a major current of postmodern ethical thinking. In a short time, it left in its wake a range of adaptations and elaborations in numerous disciplines, under the title of ‘relational ethics’. One of these adaptations is the “relational narrative” of the philosopher nurse, Sally Gadow, which she proposes as “the postmodern turn in nursing ethics.” Like that of Gilligan, Gadow’s work is a critique of (rational) ethical universalism, which purportedly focused on developing and applying a theory of the ‘good’ to all moral situations. On the contrary, argues Gadow, every moral engagement, such as that between a nursing professional and a patient, comes with inherent unique features that render any attempt at universalization impotent. Every clinical situation is defined by the ability of the professional to engage the client in an intimate, caring relationship that enables healing to take place. Thus, like Gilligan, Gadow aimed to make a clean break from the past, which was dominated by what she referred to as ethical rationalism, by replacing it with the relational approach to ethics, which is based on sympathetic and emotional engagement of patients in the clinic. This paper argues that Gadow’s acclaimed break from the past has not been completely successful. Juxtaposing Gadow’s work with the ideas of the earlier scholars she criticizes, the paper found traces of universalist, rationalist assumptions in her thought going as far back as Descartes and Kant, down to Rawls and Kohlberg. Sources of data for this study were library and archival materials, as well as secondary (Internet) resources, which were subjected to critical and content analysis.

Controlling Hypertension after Severe Cerebrovascular Event (CHASE): A Randomised, Multicentre, Controlled Study

Background: The optimal BP-lowering target in the acute phase of severe stroke is uncertain. We aimed to compare the efficacy and safety of individualised BP lowering with standard BP lowering in severe stroke. Methods: We conducted a randomised, multicentre study in 26 hospitals in China. Eligible patients were randomised into an individualised BP-lowering group (with 10-15% reduction in systolic BP [SBP] from admission level) or standard BP-lowering group (with a target SBP of <200 mm Hg in acute ischaemic stroke and <180 mm Hg in intracerebral haemorrhage). The primary outcome was the proportion of patients with a poor outcome at 90 days. Findings: Between January 1, 2017, and August 31, 2018, 500 patients with acute severe stroke were enrolled, and 483 eligible participants were included in the analysis: 242 received individualised BP-lowering treatment and 241 received standard treatment. The primary outcome event was observed in 71.1% of the participants in the individualised treatment group and in 73.4% of the standard treatment group (odds ratio with individualised treatment, 0.75; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.47 to 1.19; P = 0.222). The generalised linear analysis showed that the as compared with standard treatment, individualised treatment had a significant effect on reducing the neurological deficits at hospital discharge, as evaluated by the National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (beta estimate, -0.13; 95% CI, -0.2 to -0.03; P = 0.009). The rates of serious adverse events within 90 days in the two groups were similar (27.7% vs. 28.2%, P = 0.897). Interpretation: In patients with acute severe stoke, individualised BP-lowering treatment did not significantly reduce the rate of 3-month death or dependence. Acute lowering of SBP to 10% to 15% reduction from baseline is safe and may be effective for reducing neurological deficits at hospital discharge. Trial Registration: This trial is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT02982655. Funding: The CHASE trial is funded by the Shaanxi Province Key Research and Development Projects (2013KTZB03-02-02 and 2017ZDCXL-SF-02-02). Declaration of Interests: The authors declare no financial or other conflict of interests. Ethical Approval: The ethics committee of Xijing Hospital, which is the leading research site in this trial, approved the scientificity and ethical rationality of this study.

Moral motivation in early 18th century moral rationalism

AbstractIn the modern debate in metaethics and moral psychology, moral rationalism is often presented as a view that cannot account for the intimate relation between moral behaviour on one hand and feelings, emotions, or desires on the other. Although there is no lack of references to the classic rationalists of the 18th century in the relevant discussions, the works of these writers are rarely ever examined detail. Yet, as the debate in Kant scholarship between “intellectualists” and “affectivists” impressively shows, a more thorough analysis of what the classic rationalists actually have to say about moral motivation is suited to cast serious doubts on the idea that moral rationalism must crucially neglect the affective–conative side of human psychology. The aim of this paper is to analyse the conceptions of moral motivation that were embraced by Kant's rationalist predecessors—Clarke, Wolff, Burnet, Balguy, and Price—which have not attracted a similar amount of attention by specialists so far. The claim I will defend is that none of those early rationalists actually embraces the motivational thesis that is often taken to be characteristic of moral rationalism, a thesis I shall refer to as strong rationalism about (moral) motivation.

Moral decoupling feels good and makes buying counterfeits easy

This study integrates Bhattacharjee, Berman, and Reed's (2013) moral decoupling model with research on processing-evoked affect to test a novel explanation why consumers buy non-deceptive counterfeits. Employing mixed methods and consumer samples, two studies show that decoupling – by evoking positive emotion – increases the intention to purchase counterfeits. Study 1, a quasi-experiment (N = 356 consumers), uses counterfeit running shoes, sun glasses, fragrances, and headsets to provide evidence that positive emotions mediate the effect from decoupling (a measured variable) on purchase intention, controlling for moral rationalizing. Study 2 (N = 299 consumers) manipulates moral decoupling and price advantage of a counterfeit smartphone to provide further evidence for the mediating role of positive emotion and to show that this effect occurs regardless of moral rationalization. Price advantage, brand attachment, and category involvement attenuate decoupling effects across studies. The findings aid managers and policy makers to better protect original brands against counterfeits.

The implied theodicy of Kant’s Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason: love as a response to radical evil

This article begins with a brief survey of Kant’s pre-Critical and Critical approaches to theodicy. I maintain that his theodical response of moral faith during the Critical period appears to be a dispassionate version of what Leibniz called Fatum Christianum. Moral rationality establishes the existence and goodness of God and translates into an endless and unwavering commitment to following the moral law. I then argue that Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason offers a revision of Kant’s 1791 conception of “authentic theodicy.” Kant comes to recognize that the ends of morality and virtue, as well as the action needed to respond to the noumenal evil at the heart of humanity, outstrip the “religion of good life conduct.” This leads Kant to argue in favor of a new form of moral life embedded in a religious community and based on the love of God and of one’s fellow humans. Such a life is rooted in the incorporation of a holy principle in our noumenal selves that he terms “divine blessedness.”

To the Editors

To the Editors Ben Eklof and Tatiana Saburova We are troubled by Victoria Frede’s rather flippant treatment of the lives, tribulations, and historic legacy of Nikolai Charushin, his long-time partner Anna Kuvshinskaia, and their populist revolutionary cohorts—a story which, in our telling, took us from 1851 and the time of the Great Reforms to the perestroika era.1 We propose that the bonds and beliefs these young revolutionaries formed in the 1870s remained steadfast until the end of their lives: a commitment to ethical rationalism, redistributive justice, and participatory democracy (all expressed in the populist vocabulary of that time). After release from exile, many in this cohort came to reject violence and advocate evolutionary change. Yet their goals remained transformative, and they continued to see themselves as revolutionaries until the end of their lives, working together in the Society of Former Political Prisoners and Exiles in the 1920s to defend their legacy against Bolshevik erasures from the historical record. Never in their abundant correspondence did we encounter any sign of regret about the choices they had made that had resulted in such hardship for them and their families. Instead, Frede offers an alternative narrative purportedly explaining the paradox of revolutionaries returning to the world of humdrum activities and taking up work in the various professions after release from incarceration. In her view, Charushin and his ilk had merely flirted with revolutionary populism in their adolescence, only to see the error of their ways, return to civil society, and discard their “erstwhile” convictions—living out the rest of their lives with no particular concern about what their beliefs might be. No close reading of the documents, however, supports such a narrative. One may ask whether they were truly revolutionaries—and we bring up that question at points in the book. It is another matter to overlook what they themselves believed. For example: key to our research in central and provincial archives—which she overlooks—was the attempt to explain why populist memoirs trailed off after their return to European Russia in the 1890s. We [End Page 433] recorded in detail Charushin’s work in Viatka as a zemstvo statistician, as well as a famine relief and fire insurance agent, his founding of a prominent provincial newspaper, engagement with local social networks, and role in the Peasant Union. Using personal correspondence, police records, papers of the provincial gubernatorial administration and newspapers, as well as a veritable mountain of seldom-touched zemstvo documentation, we painstakingly reconstructed how this cohort engaged fruitfully in legal activities, all the while clinging to their ties, memories, and commitments. The silence in their memoirs about this long period signified to us that for Charushin’s generation what was worthy of recording was their earlier lives underground and in exile, their devotion to the cause of revolution, and the sacrifices they (like the Decembrists, whom they memorialized) had made. They were not alone in their views of the significance of this early period. In Viatka, Charushin was venerated for his revolutionary credentials. In 1917 and after, he consistently called himself an “old revolutionary,” a status that was not often challenged at the time. He was jailed four times by the Bolsheviks between 1918 and 1921; when the revolutionary tribunal released him in 1919, it referred to his “irreproachable revolutionary credentials.” It was only later, with the onset of Stalinism, that members of the 70s generation found themselves called “senile,” had their credentials as revolutionaries challenged, and even ended up labeled as “enemies of the people.” In our view, Frede’s dismissive rendering of Charushin’s life story does an injustice to the truly tragic lives that he and most of his friends endured for their convictions. It distorts and belittles the lived experience and beliefs of a significant portion of the intelligentsia who shared such convictions, but whose presence in the history books has been overshadowed recently by an exclusive focus on terrorism as the purported core of populism. Finally, Frede noted that the English version is an “abridged translation” (629 n. 5) of the Russian language text that she selected to review. In fact, it is a substantially altered work for a different audience, with...