Monolithic Crystals Research Articles

A four-dimensional photon detector for PET application

We analyzed a photon detector for positron emission tomography with high spatial resolution and depth of interaction capability. The detector is composed of a monolithic LYSO scintillator crystal coupled on top and bottom sides to two custom SiPM arrays. We investigated the ability to reconstruct the DOI of the 511 keV photon comparing the number of triggered SiPMs on the two sides of the module. Acquisitions were performed scanning the lateral surface of the crystal with a collimated 511 keV photon beam at different incident positions. A standard deviation of 1.5 mm in depth of interaction was obtained at the center of the module.

Validated simulation for LYSO:Ce scintillator based PET detector modules built on fully digital SiPM arrays

In the recent years new digital photon counter devices (also known as silicon photomultipliers, SiPMs) were designed and manufactured to be used specifically in positron emission tomography (PET) scanners. These finely pixelated devices opened new opportunities in PET detector development, hence their application with monolithic scintillator crystals now are of particular interest. We worked out a simulation tool and a corresponding validation method to assist the optimization and characterization of such PET detector modules. During our work we concentrated on the simulation of SPADnet sensors and the LYSO:Ce scintillator material. Validation of our algorithms combines measurements and simulations performed on UV-excited detector modules. In this paper we describe the operation of the simulation method in detail and present the validation scheme for two demonstrative PET detector-like modules: one built of a scintillator with black-painted faces and another with polished faces. By evaluating the results we show that the shape deviation of the average light distributions is lower than 13%, and the pixel count statistics follow Poisson distribution for both measurement and simulation. The calculated total count values have less than 10% deviation from the measured ones.

Sub-millimetre DOI detector based on monolithic LYSO and digital SiPM for a dedicated small-animal PET system

The mouse model is widely used in a vast range of biomedical and preclinical studies. Thanks to the ability to detect and quantify biological processes at the molecular level in vivo, PET has become a well-established tool in these investigations. However, the need to visualize and quantify radiopharmaceuticals in anatomic structures of millimetre or less requires good spatial resolution and sensitivity from small-animal PET imaging systems.In previous work we have presented a proof-of-concept of a dedicated high-resolution small-animal PET scanner based on thin monolithic scintillator crystals and Digital Photon Counter photosensor. The combination of thin monolithic crystals and MLE positioning algorithm resulted in an excellent spatial resolution of 0.7 mm uniform in the entire field of view (FOV). However, the limitation of the scanner was its low sensitivity due to small thickness of the lutetium-yttrium oxyorthosilicate (LYSO) crystals (2 mm).Here we present an improved detector design for a small-animal PET system that simultaneously achieves higher sensitivity and sustains a sub-millimetre spatial resolution. The proposed detector consists of a 5 mm thick monolithic LYSO crystal optically coupled to a Digital Photon Counter. Mean nearest neighbour (MNN) positioning combined with depth of interaction (DOI) decoding was employed to achieve sub-millimetre spatial resolution. To evaluate detector performance the intrinsic spatial resolution, energy resolution and coincidence resolving time (CRT) were measured. The average intrinsic spatial resolution of the detector was 0.60 mm full-width-at-half-maximum (FWHM). A DOI resolution of 1.66 mm was achieved. The energy resolution was 23% FWHM at 511 keV and CRT of 529 ps were measured. The improved detector design overcomes the sensitivity limitation of the previous design by increasing the nominal sensitivity of the detector block and retains an excellent intrinsic spatial resolution.

Application of scintillating properties of liquid xenon and silicon photomultiplier technology to medical imaging

We describe a new positron emission time-of-flight apparatus using liquid xenon. The detector is based in a liquid xenon scintillating cell. The cell shape and dimensions can be optimized depending on the intended application. In its simplest form, the liquid xenon scintillating cell is a box in which two faces are covered by silicon photomultipliers and the others by a reflecting material such as Teflon. It is a compact, homogenous and highly efficient detector which shares many of the desirable properties of monolithic crystals, with the added advantage of high yield and fast scintillation offered by liquid xenon. Our initial studies suggest that good energy and spatial resolution comparable with that achieved by lutetium oxyorthosilicate crystals can be obtained with a detector based in liquid xenon scintillating cells. In addition, the system can potentially achieve an excellent coincidence resolving time of better than 100ps.

A Compton camera prototype for prompt gamma medical imaging

A Compton camera prototype for a position-sensitive detection of prompt gamma rays from proton-induced nuclear reactions is being developed in Garching. The detector system allows to track the Compton-scattered electrons. The camera consists of a monolithic LaBr3:Ce scintillation absorber crystal, read out by a multi-anode PMT, preceded by a stacked array of 6 double-sided silicon strip detectors acting as scatterers. The LaBr3:Ce crystal has been characterized with radioactive sources. Online commissioning measurements were performed with a pulsed deuteron beam at the Garching Tandem accelerator and with a clinical proton beam at the OncoRay facility in Dresden. The determination of the interaction point of the photons in the monolithic crystal was investigated.

Position algorithm for monolithic scintillation crystals based on charge projection readout

Nuclear medicine imaging devices commonly use multi-element photo detection systems, composed of an array of N × N elements, each one providing an individual signal. Many strategies have been developed to reduce the number of readout channels, one of the main approaches is the Rows and Columns (R/C) projection logic. In this paper we proposed a modified version of Raised To the Power (RTP) algorithm adapted to R/C logic. In order to validate its efficiency a linear scanning irradiation on two 49× 49 mm2 LaBr3:Ce (0.5%) crystals with different thickness (4 mm and 10 mm) was carried out. Imaging performance analysis was made in terms of position linearity, Field-of-View (FoV) enlargement and spatial resolution. Imaging results from Anger Logic, RTP algorithm based on single element readout and RTP algorithm based on R/C readout were compared. A notable advantage of using RTP algorithms instead of Anger Logic was found: the FoV widens from about 30% to more than 70% of the detector area whereas the spatial resolution is highly improved, especially for off-center interactions, both for 4 mm-thick and 10 mm-thick crystals. Furthermore, imaging performance with the R/C readout is just slightly different from the single element one (FoV reduction less than 7% and SR worsening less than 10%). The R/C adapted RTP algorithm opens doors to high imaging performance with a substantial reduction of complexity and cost in the readout electronics.

Analysis of the Statistical Moments of the Scintillation Light Distribution With dSiPMs

In $\gamma $ -ray detectors, monolithic scintillation crystals offer the possibility of preserving the scintillation light distribution especially when painted black. The statistical moments of this distribution provide accurate information on the three photon impact coordinates, including their depth of interaction (DOI). Digital SiPMs (dSiPMs) return digital information based on pixels about the collected light distribution, since the signal is a digital sum of the trigger bins. In this work we present, for the first time, an accurate analysis of the statistical moments of the light distribution using monolithic painted black crystals and state-of-the-art dSiPMs. Two $32.6 \times 32.6 ~\hbox{mm}^2$ monolithic LYSO crystals covering the entire photodetectors area have been used in coincidence with 10 mm in thickness. The photosensor tiles were kept at a stable temperature of ${\rm T} = 20\,^\circ{\hbox {C}}$ . Energy resolution of about 18% was reached in relation to the zeroth moment. The first moment, related to the impact position, determined a spatial resolution of about 3 mm near the crystal center, but quadratically degrading towards the crystal borders. The DOI resolution, measured by means of the second moment, was found to be nearing 4 mm in the crystal center region. The third order moment, the so-called skewness, is related to the degree of truncation and once calibrated minimizes the compression effects. A corrected spatial resolution of about 3 mm was then measured for the entire crystal surface. DOI resolution improved at the crystal’s center, reaching 3.5 mm, but a degradation towards the borders remained due to truncation of the scintillation light distribution.

Monolithic Crystal Filter for Application in Viscosity Sensor

Monolithic crystal filter (MCF) on AT-cut quartz for application in viscosity sensor was developed. After proper matching, at a frequency of $\sim 3.6$ MHz, insertion loss in air of $\sim 1.6$ dB was obtained. The linear coefficient of frequency of about −5 ppm/°C and changes of the insertion loss of $\sim 0.5$ dB, in the temperature range of 10°–80°, were obtained. To eliminate errors caused by the longitudinal acoustic wave generation, MCF should be immersed in a measured liquid or proper amount of liquid should be inserted into the sensing window. Using water and glycerin solutions, insertion loss changes against dynamic viscosity of the MCF were measured. In a viscosity range from about 1 to 1000 $\textrm {mPa}\cdot \textrm {s}$ , an insertion loss change of $\sim 24$ dB was obtained.

Enhancing Tabletop X-Ray Phase Contrast Imaging with Nano-Fabrication.

X-ray phase-contrast imaging is a promising approach for improving soft-tissue contrast and lowering radiation dose in biomedical applications. While current tabletop imaging systems adapt to common x-ray tubes and large-area detectors by employing absorptive elements such as absorption gratings or monolithic crystals to filter the beam, we developed nanometric phase gratings which enable tabletop x-ray far-field interferometry with only phase-shifting elements, leading to a substantial enhancement in the performance of phase contrast imaging. In a general sense the method transfers the demands on the spatial coherence of the x-ray source and the detector resolution to the feature size of x-ray phase masks. We demonstrate its capabilities in hard x-ray imaging experiments at a fraction of clinical dose levels and present comparisons with the existing Talbot-Lau interferometer and with conventional digital radiography.

Time-based position estimation in monolithic scintillator detectors

Gamma-ray detectors based on bright monolithic scintillation crystals coupled to pixelated photodetectors are currently being considered for several applications in the medical imaging field. In a typical monolithic detector, both the light intensity and the time of arrival of the earliest scintillation photons can be recorded by each of the photosensor pixels every time a gamma interaction occurs. Generally, the time stamps are used to determine the gamma interaction time while the light intensities are used to estimate the 3D position of the interaction point. In this work we show that the spatio-temporal distribution of the time stamps also carries information on the location of the gamma interaction point and thus the time stamps can be used as explanatory variables for position estimation. We present a model for the spatial resolution obtainable when the interaction position is estimated using exclusively the time stamp of the first photon detected on each of the photosensor pixels. The model is shown to be in agreement with experimental measurements on a 16 mm × 16 mm × 10 mm LSO : Ce,0.2%Ca crystal coupled to a digital photon counter (DPC) array where a spatial resolution of 3 mm (root mean squared error) is obtained. Finally we discuss the effects of the main parameters such as scintillator rise and decay time, light output and photosensor single photon time resolution and pixel size.

Design optimization of a small-animal SPECT system using LGSO continuous crystals and micro parallel-hole collimators

A small-animal single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) system having compact size and low cost was designed using monolithic LGSO scintillation crystals and micro parallel-hole collimators through Monte Carlo simulations. A spatial resolution of ~1 mm and a sensitivity of ~100 cps/MBq were achieved with a four-head SPECT system. A hot rod with a diameter of 1.0 mm was resolved in the SPECT image of the ultra-micro hot spot phantom. Using a thin monolithic crystal and micro collimator, we achieved high spatial resolution and high sensitivity.

Preliminary evaluation of a monolithic detector module for integrated PET/MRI scanner with high spatial resolution

The proposal of Mindview European Project concerns with the development of a very high resolution and high efficiency brain dedicated PET scanner simultaneously working with a Magnetic Resonance scanner, that expects to visualize neurotransmitter pathways and their disruptions in the quest to better diagnose schizophrenia. On behalf of this project, we propose a low cost PET module for the first prototype, based on monolithic crystals, suitable to be integrated with a head Radio Frequency (RF) coil. The aim of the suggested module is to achieve high performances in terms of efficiency, planar spatial resolution (expected about 1 mm) and discrimination of gamma Depth Of Interaction (DOI) in order to reduce the parallax error. Our preliminary results are very promising: a DOI resolution of about 3 mm, a spatial resolution ranging from about 1 to 1.5 mm and a good position linearity.

A novel method for γ photons depth of interaction discrimination on monolithic LYSO crystals for brain PET/MRI.

The MindView European Project pursues the development of a high efficiency and high resolution brain dedicated PET detector, simultaneously working with a Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) system. Since the PET scanner is based on a small diameter ring and on thick monolithic scintillation crystals to assess high efficiency, the parallax error related to off-center positron annihilation is a critical issue. The Depth of Interaction (DoI) discrimination can reduce the blurring due to this phenomenon. In this work, we propose a novel DoI estimator, based on the ratio of the integral of scintillation light distribution to its maximum (named N/I). In a preliminary way, by means of Monte Carlo simulation, we have validated the correlation between this parameter and the DoI. Furthermore, we have experimentally tested the capability of such DoI estimator on a monolithic 20 mm-thick LYSO crystal optically coupled to a 12x12 silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs) array. Thanks to the proposed method, it is possible to select interaction events coming from different depths of the crystal. The DoI discrimination capability has been confirmed by using a collimated slanted pencil-beam: the proposed estimator allows to produce different images coming from events belonging to different depths of the crystal. From the experimental results a DoI discrimination resolution ranging from 4 mm to 6 mm has been obtained. The proposed method is expected to reduce the parallax error and, consequently, the width of lines of response coming from off- center positron annihilation of about 70% respect to the method without DoI discrimination.

Small animal PET based on 16x16 TSV-MPPCs and monolithic crystals.

In this work we present the design of a small animal PET based on 8 high-density arrays of MPPCs and monolithic scintillators. The MPPCs arrays are composed of 16x16 TSV-type (3x3 mm2) elements covering a rough active area of 5x5 cm2. A single LYSO block with a thickness of 10mm has been mounted on each detector. Black paint has been applied to the entrance and lateral faces of the crystal to preserve the scintillation light distribution. The axial and transaxial FOVs of one ring are 48 mm and 80 mm, respectively. Each MPPC array has been directly attached to a resistive readout circuit that provides outputs for each row and column of the array. These 32 signals are read with flexible boards 30 cm apart from the PET detector without any additional connectors in between. The PET-system is intended for in-line acquisition in front of MR scanners and as PET-insert inside the sensitive MRI volume. For this purpose, it is necessary to avoid magnetic sensible materials, such as nickel, and to prevent eddy currents in metallic structures induced by the MRI gradients. All detectors are air cooled and kept at temperatures of approximately 20oC with a variation below 0.05oC. The intrinsic resolution is 2.2 mm at the crystal center (averaged over all 2.6 mm) when Center of Gravity methods are used to resolve the impact position. This value is about a factor 1.5 better than results obtained with the H8500 PSPMT (64 PADs) and similar scintillators. With an improved collimator with holes with only 0.8mm diameter and a length of 70 mm, an intrinsic detector resolution of 1.1mm was reached. The energy resolutions of ROIs of 1x1 cm2 showed FWHM values in the range of 14%.

A new digital-analog multiplex method using an adder circuit

In this paper, we propose a new multiplex method for the Time-over-Threshold (ToT) method using an adder circuit to encode channel information in the pulse height. The proposed method is a combination of Multiple-Valued-Logic (MVL) and the ToT method for radiation-detection systems. In order to validate the method, a 12 mm × 12 mm × 12 mm monolithic GAGG crystal was mounted on a 16ch HAMAMATSU MPPC, whose pixel size was 3 mm × 3 mm. The input resistors of the adder circuit were set at 2 kΩ, 4 kΩ, 8 kΩ, 16 kΩ, and so on, and the feedback resistor was set at 1 kΩ. Therefore, the output voltage becomes 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, ⋅⋅⋅, for ch1, ch2, ch3, ⋅⋅⋅, respectively. A 4ch-input multiplex, which corresponds to 16-valued logic, was successfully verified. However, an 8ch-input multiplex corresponding to 256-valued logic was not verified, owing to noise factors such as ringing and overshoot. Therefore, a new decoding algorithm or a noise-cutting circuit is needed.

Divalent europium doped and un-doped calcium iodide scintillators: Scintillator characterization and single crystal growth

The alkaline-earth scintillator, CaI2:Eu2+, was initially discovered around 1964 by Hofstadter, Odell, and Schmidt. Serious practical problems quickly arose, however, that were associated with the growth of large monolithic single crystals of this material due to its lamellar, mica-like structure. As a result of its theoretically higher light yield, CaI2:Eu2+ has the potential to exceed the excellent scintillation performance of SrI2:Eu2+. In fact, theoretical predictions for the light yield of CaI2:Eu2+ scintillators suggested that an energy resolution approaching 2% at 662keV could be achievable. As in the case of the early SrI2:Eu2+ scintillator, the performance of CaI2:Eu2+ scintillators has traditionally suffered due, at least in part, to outdated materials synthesis, component stoichiometry/purity, and single-crystal-growth techniques. Based on our recent work on SrI2:Eu2+ scintillators in single-crystal form, we have developed new techniques that are applied here to CaI2:Eu2+ and pure CaI2 with the goal of growing large un-cracked crystals and, potentially, realizing the theoretically predicted performance of the CaI2:Eu2+ form of this material. Calcium iodide does not adhere to modern glassy carbon Bridgman crucibles—so there should be no differential thermal-contraction-induced crystal/crucible stresses on cooling that would result in crystal cracking of the lamellar structure of CaI2. Here we apply glassy carbon crucible Bridgman growth, high-purity growth-charge compounds, our molten salt processing/filtration technique, and extended vacuum-melt-pumping methods to the growth of both CaI2:Eu2+ and un-doped CaI2. Large scintillating single crystals were obtained, and detailed characterization studies of the scintillation properties of CaI2:Eu2+ and pure CaI2 single crystals are presented that include studies of the effects of plastic deformation of the crystals on the scintillator performance.

Reversible Solid-to-Liquid Phase Transition of Coordination Polymer Crystals

The solid-to-liquid phase transition, a fundamental process commonly observed for various types of substances with significant potential for application, has been given little attention in the field of coordination polymers (CPs) despite the rich functionality of these compounds. In this article, we report the reversible solid-to-liquid phase transition of crystalline CPs. These CPs are composed of zinc ions, phosphate, and azoles, and a well-balanced composition, ionicity, and bond strength afford "melting" CPs. We examined the structure of one such melting framework in the liquid and glass states and found that the coordination bonds are not fully preserved in the liquid state but are re-formed in the glass state. As a demonstration, we fabricated, via phase transition, a thin film with an aligned crystal orientation and a monolith crystal of the CP.

3D photon impact determination in monolithic crystals based on autocorrelation filters and RTP methods.

In PET detectors based on monolithic scintillators, the photon impact position can be estimated from the light intensity distribution (LD) on the photodetector pixels. Typically, there is a poor estimation of the interaction positions towards the edges when linear algorithms such as Center of Gravity (CoG) are used. We present a novel method to determine the interaction coordinates in thick monolithic crystals filtering the digitized LDs from each gamma-event by means of an autocorrelation filter and the raise to power (RTP) positioning algorithm to reduce the border effects. The experimental setup was based on two detector blocks based on monolithic LYSO scintillator crystals (50x50x20 mm3). Each crystal is coupled to a SiPMs array as 12x12 photosensors and an electronic readout that outputs information of each SiPM row and column. Between the detector blocks, a collimated array of 9x9 22Na sources, separated 5 mm each other, was placed. The optimum power to use in the RTP positioning algorithm was determined using the third order intercept point (IP3) from plots of the measured coordinates versus known positions. After applying the autocorrelation and RTP fifth to the data, we found an improvement of the spatial resolution from 2.5 mm when CoG is used, to 1.2 mm in the crystal center region. In this work we show how to accurately resolve 3D photon impact coordinates in thick monolithic crystals using autocorrelation filters merged with RTP methods. After applying the new approach it is possible to accurately resolve impacts close to the entrance of 20 mm thick LYSO scintillators. The reached spatial resolution at any photon depth of interaction is comparable with state-of-the-art crystal array approaches with the advantage of the proposed work to also provide continuous depth of interaction information.

Monolithic phononic crystals with a surface acoustic band gap from surface phonon-polariton coupling.

We theoretically and experimentally demonstrate the existence of complete surface acoustic wave band gaps in surface phonon-polariton phononic crystals, in a completely monolithic structure formed from a two-dimensional honeycomb array of hexagonal shape domain-inverted inclusions in single crystal piezoelectric Z-cut lithium niobate. The band gaps appear at a frequency of about twice the Bragg band gap at the center of the Brillouin zone, formed through phonon-polariton coupling. The structure is mechanically, electromagnetically, and topographically homogeneous, without any physical alteration of the surface, offering an ideal platform for many acoustic wave applications for photonics, phononics, and microfluidics.

Evaluation of a compact, high-resolution SPECT detector based on digital silicon photomultipliers

MicroSPECT is one of the main functional imaging techniques used in the preclinical setting. Even though high-resolution images can be obtained with currently available systems, their sensitivity is often quite low due to the use of multi-pinhole collimation. This results in long acquisition times and hampers dynamic imaging. However, it has already been shown that this limited sensitivity can be overcome using high-resolution detectors. In this article, we therefore investigated the use of a digital photon counter (DPC) in combination with a 2 mm thick monolithic LYSO crystal for SPECT imaging. These light sensors contain arrays of avalanche photodiodes whose signals are directly digitised. The DPCs have the advantage that they are very compact, have a high intrinsic resolution, are MR compatible and allow disabling cells with a high dark count rate. In order to investigate the influence of the temperature dependent dark count rate on the detector performance, we compared it at 3 °C and 18 °C.At 3 °C, we observed an energy resolution of 28.8% and an intrinsic spatial resolution of 0.48 mm. Furthermore, the count rate at 10% loss is 60 kcps. Next, we looked at the event loss at 18 °C caused by the higher dark count rate and found a 5% loss compared to the 3 °C measurements. At this higher temperature the energy resolution becomes 29.2% and the intrinsic spatial resolution decreases to 0.52 mm. Due to the 5% count loss, the count rate at 10% loss increases to 63 kcps. A small degradation of the detector performance is thus observed at 18 °C.These results show the usefulness of this detector for SPECT imaging together with its excellent intrinsic spatial resolution. A drawback of the detector is its low, spatially varying energy resolution. Even though the detection efficiency and intrinsic spatial resolution are better at 3 °C, results are still acceptable at 18 °C.