Monoenergetic Spectra Research Articles

Dual-energy mammography: simulation studies

This paper presents a mammography simulator and demonstrates its applicability in feasibility studies in dual-energy (DE) subtraction mammography. This mammography simulator is an evolution of a previously presented x-ray imaging simulation system, which has been extended with new functionalities that are specific for DE simulations. The new features include incident exposure and dose calculations, the implementation of a DE subtraction algorithm as well as amendments to the detector and source modelling. The system was then verified by simulating experiments and comparing their results against published data. The simulator was used to carry out a feasibility study of the applicability of DE techniques in mammography, and more precisely to examine whether this modality could result in better visualization and detection of microcalcifications. Investigations were carried out using a 3D breast software phantom of average thickness, monoenergetic and polyenergetic beam spectra and various detector configurations. Dual-shot techniques were simulated. Results showed the advantage of using monoenergetic in comparison with polyenergetic beams. Optimization studies with monochromatic sources were carried out to obtain the optimal low and high incident energies, based on the assessment of the figure of merit of the simulated microcalcifications in the subtracted images. The results of the simulation study with the optimal energies demonstrated that the use of the DE technique can improve visualization and increase detectability, allowing identification of microcalcifications of sizes as small as 200 µm. The quantitative results are also verified by means of a visual inspection of the synthetic images.

Aneutronic fusion on the base of asymmetrical centrifugal trap

A physical design of a device that can be a base for a direct-conversion nuclear electric power station is considered. The project considers the aneutronic reaction P–11B in the asymmetric centrifugal trap. Kinetic energy of nuclear particles (alpha particles) is converted into electrical energy inside this device; no thermal cycle is used. Heating and recuperation of energy of protons and boron ions take place in the plasma space. The presented scheme differs significantly from the conventional thermonuclear fusion. ‘Fast’ protons, which are the main energy component of plasma, have an almost monoenergetic spectrum. This makes it possible to realize the ‘resonance’ fusion.

Neutron spectrometry using artificial neural networks

An artificial neural network has been designed to obtain neutron spectra from Bonner spheres spectrometer count rates. The neural network was trained using 129 neutron spectra. These include spectra from isotopic neutron sources; reference and operational spectra from accelerators and nuclear reactors, spectra based on mathematical functions as well as few energy groups and monoenergetic spectra. The spectra were transformed from lethargy to energy distribution and were re-binned to 31 energy groups using the MCNP 4C code. The re-binned spectra and the UTA4 response matrix were used to calculate the expected count rates in Bonner spheres spectrometer. These count rates were used as input and their respective spectra were used as output during the neural network training. After training, the network was tested with the Bonner spheres count rates produced by folding a set of neutron spectra with the response matrix. This set contains data used during network training as well as data not used. Training and testing was carried out using the Matlab ® program. To verify the network unfolding performance, the original and unfolded spectra were compared using the root mean square error. The use of artificial neural networks to unfold neutron spectra in neutron spectrometry is an alternative procedure that overcomes the drawbacks associated with this ill-conditioned problem.

Spectroscopic study of a pulsed argon rf ICP discharge: stepwise excitation in the afterglow and its application in optical spectroscopy

It is shown experimentally in a noble-gas, pulsed rf ICP at low pressure (∼20 mTorr) that stepwise excitation may cause a maximum in the time dependence of the optical emission during the power-free stage following the rf pulse. During this stage, fast electrons are created by chemi-ionization of metastable atoms and collisions of second kind between metastables and slow electrons. These fast electrons have energies much greater than the overall average electron energy, which is typically ∼0.1 eV for the power-free stage. If the flux of fast electrons exceeds the ambipolar flux of ions to the chamber walls, a dramatic increase in the near-wall potential drop occurs, from a few tenths of a volt to several volts, and a corresponding increase in the near-wall electric fields. In this case, a fraction of the fast electrons are reflected by the near-wall potential drop and accumulate in the plasma volume, leading to an increase in density as a function of time. Eventually, the fast electrons have sufficient density to produce significant excitation of the metastable states, increasing with time and creating a maximum in the optical emission. In the opposite case, when the flux of fast electrons is less than the flux of ions to the wall, stepwise excitation in the afterglow is usually negligible. In this case, a maximum can be caused by recombination, but generally, only at higher gas pressures. These effects should be taken into account in spectroscopy of post-discharge plasmas of various types and may be useful for measurements of relative cross-sections for stepwise excitation of atoms and molecules by monoenergetic electrons. The latter is possible because the collisional energy relaxation time of the fast electrons at these pressures is on the order of milliseconds, leading to the existence of a near monoenergetic energy spectrum for a significant time.

Investigating the TEPC radiation quality factor response for low energy accelerator based clinical applications.

The use of a tissue equivalent proportional counter (TEPC) filled with propane based tissue equivalent gas simulating a 2 microm diameter tissue sphere has been investigated to estimate the radiation quality factor of the neutron fields used in in vivo neutron activation measurements at the McMaster University 3 MV Van de Graaff accelerator. The counter response to estimate the effective quality factor based on the definitions of Q(L) provided in ICRP 26 and 60 as a function of neutron energy has been examined experimentally using monoenergetic and continuous neutron spectra in the energy range of 35 to 600 keV. In agreement with other studies, the counter failed to provide a flat R(Q) response and showed a sharp drop below 200 keV neutron energy. Development of an algorithm to evaluate the quality factors using measured dose-mean lineal energy, yD, and comparison of the algorithm with other reported algorithms and analytical methods developed for the improvement in TEPC dose equivalent response has been reported.

Measurement of neutron dose with an organic liquid scintillator coupled with a spectrum weight function.

A dose evaluation method for neutrons in the energy range of a few MeV to 100 MeV has been developed using a spectrum weight function (G-function), which is applied to an organic liquid scintillator of 12.7 cm in diameter and 12.7 cm in length. The G-function that converts the pulse height spectrum of the scintillator into the ambient dose equivalent, H*(10), was calculated by an unfolding method using successive approximation of the response function of the scintillator and the ambient dose equivalent per unit neutron fluence (H*(10) conversion coefficients) of ICRP 74. To verify the response function of the scintillator and the value of H*(10) evaluated by the G-function. pulse height spectra of the scintillator were measured in some different neutron fields, which have continuous energy, monoenergetic and quasi-monoenergetic spectra. Values of H*(10) estimated using the G-function and pulse height spectra of the scintillator were compared with those calculated using neutron energy spectra. These doses agreed with each other. From the results, it was concluded that H*(10) can be evaluated directly from the pulse height spectrum of the scintillator by applying the G-function proposed in this study.

Photon scatter in portal images: physical characteristics of pencil beam kernels generated using the EGS Monte Carlo code.

Pencil beam kernels describing scattered photon fluence behind homogeneous water slabs at various air gap distances were generated using the EGS Monte Carlo code. Photon scatter fluence was scored in separate bins based on the particle's history: singly scattered, multiply scattered, and bremsstrahlung and positron annihilation photons. Simultaneously, the mean energy and mean angle with respect to the incident photon pencil beam were tallied. Kernels were generated for incident photon pencil beams exhibiting monoenergetic spectra of 2.0 and 10.0 MeV, and polyenergetic spectra representative of 6 and 24 MV beams. Reciprocity was used to generate scatter fractions on the central axis for various field sizes, phantom thicknesses, and air gaps. The scatter kernels were further characterized by full width at half-maximum estimates. Modulation transfer functions were calculated, providing theoretical estimates of the limit of performance of portal imaging systems due to the intrinsic scattering of photon radiation through the patient.

Electronic dose conversion technique using a NaI(Tl) detector for assessment of exposure dose rate from environmental radiation

An electronic dose conversion technique to assess the exposure dose rate due to environmental radiation especially from terrestrial sources was developed. For a 2/spl times/2 inch cylindrical NaI(Tl) scintillation detector, pulse-height spectra were obtained for gamma-rays of energy up to 3 MeV by Monte Carlo simulation. Based on the simulation results and the experimentally fitted energy resolution, dose conversion factors were calculated by a numerical decomposition method. These calculated dose conversion factors were, then, electronically implemented to a developed dose conversion unit (DCU) which is a microprocessor-controlled single channel analyzer (SCA) with variable discrimination levels. The simulated spectra were confirmed by measurement of several monoenergetic gamma spectra with a multichannel analyzer (MCA). The converted exposure dose rates from the implemented dose conversion algorithm in the DCU were also evaluated for a field test in the vicinity of the nuclear power plant at Kori as well as for several standard sources, and the results were in good agreement with separate measurement by a high pressure ionization chamber (HPIC) within a 6.4% deviation.

Characterisation of the spectral distribution of scattered photons for the French national primary 60Co beam

The beam from a 60Co source is degraded due to photon scattering by the irradiation system and the source itself. The resulting gamma-ray spectrum includes a continuous spectral distribution of scattered photons up to 1 MeV. Since accurate dose measurements require precise knowledge of the flux density, the French national primary beam originating from the Colire teletherapy head has been experimentally characterised. A deconvolution process was carried out using a library of monoenergetic pulse-height spectra. The measurement procedure also generated the scattering shape and intensity relative to the main radiation for different source-to-detector distances. Using these data, the mean-energy values of the radiation beam have been calculated.

The effect of triplet production on pair-Compton cascades in thermal radiation

We calculate the spectrum of photons resulting from electromagnetic cascades through thermal radiation, and examine the consequences of including triplet production in these cascades. We assume that the cascade is one-dimensional, and we find that this approximation is justified in the present work for thermal radiation with temperature less than $10^{-3} mc^2$. Results are obtained for both monoenergetic and power-law primary spectra, and for a variety of path lengths. We find that triplet production is particularly important in electron--photon cascades through thermal radiation when the primary energy exceeds $10^5 m^2c^4/kT$ for propagation over small path lengths. The importance of triplet production decreases as the path length increases, and it has no effect on saturated cascades.

Internal energy distributions from nitrogen dioxide fluorescence. 1. Cumulative sum method

This article describes a method of obtaining information about the internal energy (E) distribution of a fluorescing population of nitrogen dioxide, NO[sub 2]*, from its dispersed spectrum between 400 and 840 nm. We show that two fluorescing populations of the same average energy but different energy spread give statistically significant differences in their observed cumulative sum spectra, although the differences are small. Broadly spread distributions of NO[sub 2]* internal energy are produced by photolysis of RNO[sub 2] molecules and by collisional deactivation of monoenergetically excited NO[sub 2]. The cumulative sum fluorescence spectrum from a broadly distributed internal energy population is represented as a weighted combination of monoenergetically excited cumulative sum fluorescence spectra. A cumulative sum spectrum utilizes all of the data, is positive and single valued, and smoothly, monotonically increases with decreasing observation energy. By differentiation of the cumulative sum spectrum, the original spectrum is recovered undistorted. Unlike a structured monoenergetic fluorescence spectrum, the cumulative sum is well approximated by a simple algebraic expression, I(E,X), where E is the internal energy of NO[sub 2]* and X are the photon energies of the observed spectrum. 14 refs., 18 figs., 3 tabs.

Are the filaments formed by synchrotron thermal instability bright?

Previous analyses of the formation of filaments by the synchrotron-inverse-Compton thermal instability (STI) have assumed a relativistic Maxwellian distribution of electrons, rather than a power-law distribution as observed. In these analyses, the hypothesis of a monoenergetic spectrum does not permit determination of the true evolution of the volume emissivity as a function of the spectral luminosity in the filament. It is thus not possible to conclude whether the filaments formed by STI, such as in supernova remnants and extragalactic radio lobes and jets, are effectively bright or dark compared to the adjacent ambient region when observed at a given frequency

Considerations regarding the application of capillary optics to medical radiography.

The generation of monoenergetic or quasimonoenergetic x-ray spectra has been accomplished by several methods including the use of K-edge filtration, characteristic radiation, crystal monochromators, and multilayer mirrors. In this paper some practical questions are discussed regarding the possibility of obtaining narrow-band spectra using x-ray reflection in glass capillary optics which have been reported recently in connection with the focusing and generation of parallel x-ray beams. Derivation of formulas for double and triple reflection with and without additional K-edge filtration imply that these methods are superior to the use of filtration alone. It is shown that the double reflection scheme is most sensitive to the angular divergence of the beam emanating from the capillary array used to generate the incident parallel beam. Simulations using three reflections predict output spectra which are relatively insensitive to blurring due to angular divergence. A small amount of K-edge filtration in combination with three reflections provides considerable sharpening of the x-ray spectrum. Aside from the spectral selectivity provided by the capillary array, the reduced divergence of the primary transmission may have advantages for scatter rejection in situations where the air gap between the patient and detector is increased by an amount consistent with the resolution requirements of the application. In parallel beam situations, the use of capillary arrays between the patient and detector may also be useful for the rejection of divergent scattered radiation.

Multiple compton scattering of electrons in a photon field

Consideration is given to the motion of electrons in a photon field of the monoenergetic or power-law spectrum under the conditions when the main mechanism of energy loss is the inverse Compton scattering by field photons. This process changes the primary spectrum of electrons and converts low-energy field photons to high-energy gamma-quanta for which the electron confinement region is assumed to be optically thin. The electron and gamma-ray spectra have been obtained in a wide energy interval including the Klein-Nishina and Thomson regions. A simple qualitative dependence of the solutions found on the field parameters and the primary spectrum of electrons has been established.

X‐ray attenuation properties of radiographic contrast media

A systematic study has been carried out to assess the x-ray attenuation properties of various elements when used as radiographic contrast enhancing media. This study examines the effects of solutions of molecules with effective atomic numbers from 40 to 92 on the signal-contrast ratio of radiographic images formed with various input x-ray spectra on suitable phantoms. A variety of x-ray spectra were used including monoenergetic spectra, constant potential x-ray tube spectra, and computed tomography spectra. In addition, a computer model was used to predict the effects studied. In general, the computer model is able to accurately predict the resulting signal-contrast ratio for a given combination of contrast media, input x-ray spectra, and phantom composition. From these data and calculations, it may be possible to design new contrast media which are tailored to specific diagnostic imaging tasks.

Nitrogen dioxide fluorescence from N2O5 photolysis

The products of ultraviolet photolysis of N2O5 are NO3 and a wavelength dependent mixture of NO2, NO*2, and NO+O, where NO*2 represents one or more excited electronic states of nitrogen dioxide. This NO*2 emits the visible fluorescence spectrum of nitrogen dioxide (photolysis induced fluorescence, PIF), and this spectrum was compared with monochromatically excited NO2 fluorescence spectra (laser induced fluorescence, LIF). In a series of experiments, dispersed PIF and LIF spectra were measured where reactant pressure was 200 mTorr, delay time was 30 ns, and observation time was 600 ns. According to results obtained by Sugimoto and co-workers, under these conditions the continuous spectrum, which reflects the overall internal energy of NO*2, had been little modified by collision, although there was degradation of fine structure. The continuous LIF spectra were fit to an empirical function, and the PIF spectra were shown to be well represented by a linear combination of these mono-energetic excitation spectra. The coefficients of this linear combination plus other considerations were interpreted to give the almost nascent internal energy distribution of the electronically excited nitrogen dioxide molecules produced by N2O5 photolysis. This non-Boltzmann internal energy distribution indicates that electronically excited nitrogen dioxide is produced in the 2B1 state when N2O5 is photolyzed.

Cosmic-ray acceleration at stellar wind terminal shocks

Steady-state spherically symmetric analytic solutions of the cosmic-ray transport equations, applicable to the problem of acceleration of cosmic rays at the terminal shock to a stellar wind, are studied. The spectra, graidents, and flow patterns of particles modulated and accelerated by the stellar wind and shock are investigated by means of monoenergetic-source solutions at finite radius, as well as solutions with monoenergetic and power-law galactic spectra. On the basis of calculations given, early-type stars could supply a significant fraction of the 3 x 10 to the 40th ergs/sec required by galactic cosmic rays.

Energy imparted to the patient in diagnostic radiology: calculation of conversion factors for determining the energy imparted from measurements of the air collision kerma integrated over beam area

The energy imparted to the patient in diagnostic radiology, related to radiation risk in examinations of the trunk and head, can be deduced from a measurement of the air collision kerma (or exposure) of the incident primary photons integrated over beam area by using a thin, flat ionisation chamber covering the entire roentgen beam. Factors for converting the integral of the air collision kerma to energy imparted to the patient have been calculated using a Monte-Carlo method. The patient is simulated by laterally infinite water slabs with thicknesses from 100-300 mm. Calculations are performed for monoenergetic photons (5-300 keV) and energy spectra commonly used in diagnostic radiology (40-130 kV acceleration potential differences and values of the half-value thickness of air collision kerma in aluminium from 0.9 to 9.9 mm). Correction factors which take into account the additional escape of scattered photons from the sides of a laterally finite water slab as a function of field size and focal distance are also given.

Spectrum, angular distribution and polarization of auroral hard X-rays

The angular variations of elastic and inelastic scattering cross-sections have been calculated accounting for Hartree-Fock atomic model. Using these cross-sections the evolution of electron energy and angular distributions at different heights in the ionosphere have been computed with the help of Monte Carlo technique. Mono-energetic, power law and exponential electron spectra with isotropic and mono-directional incidence starting at an altitude of 300 km have been taken to obtain the angular and energy distribution at certain height intervals. It is found that isotropic distribution incident at the top of the ionosphere becomes anisotropic due to collisions at lower heights. Using Sauter bremsstrahlung cross-section and the calculated electron flux we have computed the spectrum, angular distribution and polarization of bremsstrahlung X-rays at different heights. The emission is found to be peaked at lower angles at higher heights and becomes isotropic with depth of penetration. Polarization is considerable at higher altitudes for mono-directional beams and becomes significant at lower heights for isotropic incidence. It is argued that the study of angular distribution and polarization can yield information about the nature of precipitating electron flux and hence about the acceleration mechanism operating during electron precipitation.

Neutron-Induced Fission Cross Section of Plutonium-240 in the Energy Range from 10 keV to 10 MeV

The neutron-induced fission cross section of 240Pu was measured in the neutron energy range from 10 keV to 10 MeV using the 7-MV Van de Graaff and the electron linear accelerator of the Central Bureau for Nuclear Measurements as pulsed neutron sources, which delivered monoenergetic and continuous neutron spectra, respectively. The neutron-induced fission events were detected with a parallel plate ionization chamber that provided a fast and narrow output signal allowing nanosecond timing, but where the time integral of the pulse contained, at the same time, the energy information of the ionizing particle. This detector permitted a high discrimination between alpha particles and fission fragments at an alpha emission rate of some 107 s−1. The fission cross-section data below 400 keV are especially remarkable since they were taken with an energy resolution almost one order of magnitude better than any other published data set. In this region, large structures in the fission cross section due to Class II states in the second well of the double-humped fission barrier were found. The spontaneous fission half-life of 240Pu was measured to be (1.15 ± 0.03)·1011 yr.