Mongolian State Research Articles

COMMUNIST PARTY’S AND POLITICS’ ELITES IN THE TRANSFORMATION OF MONGOLIAN SOCIETY IN THE 1920s TO 30s

This study shows the multifactorial process of formation of new communist and political elite in Mongolia in the 1920s and 30s during the hardest period of the struggle for sovereignty and the formation of true Mongolian state. The author focuses on the analysis of domestic political and foreign policy factors influencing the development of the basic principles and mechanisms of the formation of the Mongolian Communist Party’s and politics’ elite and its participation in the process of transformation of traditional Mongolian society based on the socialist modernisation model. The characteristics of the process of formation of the Mongolian communist and political elite from the very first revolutionary circles of Mongolia People’s Party to the fundamental measures of the country’s socialist reorganisation are given. Particular attention is paid to the formation of a “tactical alliance” at the initial stage of the revolutionary process, the internal political struggle in the ranks of the Mongolian communist and political elite in carrying out fundamental social changes and the transformation of Mongolian society in the period of the 1920s-40s. On the basis of archival material and taking into account the achievements of modern Russian and foreign historiography, problematic and key issues of Russian historiography of the process of formation of the political elite and the transformation of the socialist model of the socialist model in Mongolia in the 1920s-30s are considered. The author concluded that the period of the 1920s and 30s, the struggle between old and new social forces, the formation of a new communist and political elite unfolded against a very unique background characterised, on the one hand, by the desire for national unity, the revival of Mongolian statehood, and on the other hand, by the choice of the optimal model of social development in those historical conditions.

Historical aspects of the origin and formation of military and political relations between Mongolia (Mongolian people’s republic) and Russia (the USSR) (1860–1939)

Historical milestones of the birth and formation of military and political relations between Mongolia and Russia over a long period of time, from the 1860s up to the beginning of World War II are analysed in the article on the basis of normative legal documents. It was the policies pursued by Russia and the USSR, along with a variety of external and internal factors, that were decisive in Mongolia’s gaining independence and sovereignty. The nature of the influence of Russia (USSR) on the formation and strengthening of the Mongolian army is considered in the article; as well as the participation of military instructors of the Russian Imperial Army and military representatives of the Russian Communist Red Army in the formation and training of Mongolian military troops and military units in the 1910-1920s; the main aspects of military and political co-operation between the USSR and Mongolia in the 1930s and on the eve of World War II are studied, in particular the specifics and issues of supplying weapons to the military units of the Mongolian army, as well as the role of the Soviet Union in the development of the Mongolian army. On the basis of previously published archival sources and materials, a detailed analysis of the organisation and construction of the Mongolian People’s Republic’s armed forces, their combat training and manning is carried out. Conclusion about the determining influence of military-political relations between Russia and Mongolia in the studied period on the formation of the Mongolian state and its armed forces, as well as on strengthening of Mongolia’s position in the international arena is made in the article.

Some historical aspects of education and research in Russia and Mongolia

The article describes the history of the origin and development of friendly relation in Russian-Mongolian cooperation in the fields of higher education and science on the example of Irkutsk National Research Technical University (former Irkutsk Polytechnic Institute, Irkutsk State Technical University) Irkutsk, Russia and the Mongolian University of Science and Technology (former Mongolian State University, Mongolian Polytechnic Institute) Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. The author analyzes basic scientific interests of the teaching staff of these universities of Eastern Siberia and Mongolia, which are geographically the closest neighbors. Based on archival materials and published works, a detailed description of training scientific and pedagogical personnel for Mongolia at the Irkutsk university from 1960 to 2022 is given as well as the thematic scope and the nature of field and research work are described. Moreover, the activity results of the Kerulen International Geological Expedition, which was the result of many years of friendly relations between Russia and Mongolia in the field of education and science are presented. The conducted work clearly demonstrates an example of specific achievements in the fields of geological surveying, research and teaching activities of the academic staff of higher educational institutions of the two countries.

A study of factors causing math anxiety among undergraduate students

Mathematics is a subject with numerous applications in everyday life but it is often viewed as difficult leading to math anxiety among students. This anxiety can limit students' career options and affect their success. To address this issue, we investigated the factors contributing to math anxiety among university and college students. This study focused on students from the National University of Mongolia (NUM) and the Mongolian State University of Education (MSUE). We used the Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale questionnaire (A-MARS) developed in 1972 by Richardson and Suinn and conducted various statistical tests including factor analysis, correlation analysis and regression analysis to analyze the data. Our results show that teacher-related factors have a strong negative correlation with math anxiety (β=-0.583) while family-related factors (β=-0.311) and student-related factors (β=-0.133) have weaker correlations. Possible explanations for these findings include inadequate teaching and professional skills, poor communication between students and teachers, heavy task loads and outdated resources. This study highlights the importance of these factors to reduce math anxiety and promote success in mathematics education.

VII International Forum of the Association of Expert Centers of Russia, China and Mongolia: Key Issues and Prospects for Cooperation

The paper presents a brief overview of the VII Forum of Expert Centers of Russia,China and Mongolia. The forum is one of the platforms for the implementation of the global initiative “One Belt and One Road”, as well as the discussion of specific mechanisms for the building up the China-Mongolia-Russia Economic Corridor. Since 2015, six International Forums have been held in various formats. Representatives of Mongolia, Russia and China alternately hosted the Forum. Today we can assert that the Forum has given a great incentive to the development of practical cooperation between Russia, China and Mongolia. Scientists, experts, teachers of universities, government officials of the three countries took part in the Forum. The forum was guided by the results of bilateral meetings between the leaders of Russia and China, Russia and Mongolia. The main organizer of the VII Forum was the Center for Macroeconomic Research of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (PR China). The Russian side was represented by the Institute of Mongolian, Buddhist and Tibetan studies of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Mongolian side by the Mongolian State University. The main part of the forum was represented by 12 scientific reports, which were conditionally divided into two key topics: “Deepening cooperation in the field of new energy and agriculture between Russia, China and Mongolia” and “Strengthening cooperation in cross-border e-commerce between Russia, China and Mongolia”. Experts from the three countries presented an analysis of the main trends in the development of cooperation in modern conditions, and proposed mechanisms for overcoming existing barriers.

Монгольская страница истории Улуса Джучи

This review article discusses a new scientific publication of the Institute of Mongolian Studies and the Department of History of the Mongolian State University. In 2019, Steppe Publishing published a collective monograph entitled «History of the Mongol Empire» in 5 volumes. The titles of the volumes correspond to the names of the states that made up the Mongol Empire in the XIII–XIV centuries: «Mongol Empire», «Yuan Empire», «Ulus Jochi», «Ulus Ilkhanate», and «Chagatai ulus». The third volume of the monograph covers the history of the Mongols in the 13th–16th centuries. It is about the state founded by Jochi, the eldest son of Genghis Khan. This book «Ulus Jochi» is the 6th book to be published on the history of the «Golden Horde» in Mongolia, being a new fundamental work of young historians of the country. The оbjective of the study was to highlight the content of the monograph and to reveal the novelty of the recent work by Mongolia’s historians. Research materials: In the course of writing a review, the author sought to find comparative historiographic works on the topic, including those that touch on controversial issues in the history of Ulus Jochi. Results and novelty of the research from the point of view of research methodology, the collective monograph “Ulus Jochi” is written with novelty, namely in regard to its conceptual apparatus. The author of this work agrees with the main provisions and conclusions of the book under review and believes that this work has made many steps forward in studying the history of the Ulus Jochi [Golden Horde].

Khalkhas Tsogtu Khuntaiji: Dissonance of Assessments in Historiography

The article presents an analysis of the political and religious activities of Tsogtu Khuntaiji, one of the controversial personalities in the history of Mongolia. In the analysis of the activities of Tsogtu Khuntaiji, the historical-biographical method was applied. It made it possible to trace the origins of the political views of Tsogtu Khuntaiji. The application of the comparative historical method revealed common features and similarities in the political trends of Inner (Southern) and Khalkha (Northern) Mongolia. Analytical comparison of the main circumstances of the political struggle among the ruling stratum showed that the religious factor has become the main dividing line of the warring parties. Using the materials of written and folklore sources, the motives and reasons that prompted Tsogtu Khuntaiji to come out as a supporter of Ligden Khan are traced. The latter was the bearer of the title of Great khan and sought to revive a single Mongolian state. To resolve this issue, the nature of the relationship between Tsogto Khuntaiji and the influential princely houses of Khalkha is considered. It is shown that the general dissatisfaction of the nobility with the activities of Tsogto Khuntaiji was expressed in the person of the rulers of large Mongolian specific possessions: Sain-noyon, Tushetu-khan and Setsen-khan. The support of Tsogto Khuntaiji for the policy of centralization of power in the hands of the Chakhar Ligden Khan led, in the conditions of the specificity of the Mongol rulers of Khalkha, to his gradual isolation, which eventually turned into expulsion from his native lands. An external factor was added to the complex tangle of interweaving of internal political conditions and religious relations ‒ the emerging state of the Manchus, which, having become the center of attraction for the Mongolian elite, was interested in the fragmentation of the Mongolian political space. It is possible that the political position of Tsogto Khuntaiji acquired its final features precisely under the influence of this circumstance.

TAX POLICY OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE (1206-1405)

Summary According to historical sources, property differences arose at a certain stage of human history, and taxes have been levied since the formation of class societies and states. Tax comes from the Greek word “Gift”, because, initially, citizens gave gifts to the government on a voluntary basis. As a result, the king believed that the citizens should pay taxes because he was serving the people, so the gift turned into a compulsory tribute, and taxes arose. For example, in the 12th-11th centuries BC, citizens began to pay taxes at the king’s expense. Today, taxes are defined as money that is collected from enterprises, organizations, and citizens, voluntarily or by force, and is transferred to the state budget. In the 10th and 18th centuries, when a state was formed in Mongolia, citizens began to pay tribute to the lords and authorities, and the foundation of taxation was laid. There is no one who can argue that taxes are the basis for the prosperity of the Mongolian state. That’s why it is said that “under the existence of the state there is the existence of taxes, and under the existence of taxes there is the existence of the state”. Researchers have considered the history of taxation in Mongolia in 5 stages. In this article, we have included a brief history of the development of taxes in Mongolia and the policies of the great kings of Mongolia regarding taxes.

Bor'ba Mongolii za nezavisimost' pri diplomaticheskoj i voennoj podderzhke Rossii i RSFSR

After Northern Mongolia voluntarily recognized itself as a vassal of the Qing Empire in 1691, it became known as the Outer Empire and lost political and economic independence, the Manchu emperor Kangxi declared its lands his property, embassy relations between Russia and the Khalkha principalities were interrupted. if it were not for the Russian state, the Buryat and Tungus peoples in the Baikal territory would become the same province of the Qing Empire, and they could suffer the fate of the population of the Dzungar Khanate destroyed in 1756 by the Manchu-Chinese troops or the Mongol people who were on the verge of extinction at the beginning of the 20th century. After the fall of the Qing Empire, relying on the help and patronage of Russia, the Khalkha princes on December 1, 2011 proclaimed in Urga the Declaration on the Restoration of Mongolia’s Independence from China. The article shows and analyzes the diplomatic and military assistance of Russia during this period, which became the first country to support the independence of the new Mongolian state.

The genesis of the Mongolian revolution of 1921: methodological and theoretical aspects

The article examines the problematic and key issues of Russian historiography, theoretical and methodological aspects of the Mongolian revolution of 1921. Topicality of the study is due to the fact that the current scientific discourse pays great attention to the study of revolutionary processes in a broader historical context, with the involvement of new methodological approaches, previously unexplored materials. The Mongolian revolution of 1921 became a turning point on the path of the socialist reorganisation of the traditional nomadic society, carrying out radical political, socio-economic changes within the framework of the young Mongolian state. Particular attention is paid to the evolution of views in Russian, Mongolian and Western historiography, historical approaches, methodology in the study of the problem under consideration, new controversial aspects of the problems of the political history of Mongolia and Russian (Soviet)-Mongolian relations are revealed. The novelty of the research is seen in the fact that the analysis of historical literature showed that the Mongolian Revolution of 1921 in transnational history was a complex and multifactorial phenomenon that included both internal and external factors: the movement of the Mongols themselves towards independence and sovereignty, the advancement of revolutionary ideas Comintern in the East, ensuring the security of the eastern borders from the USSR. The author comes to the conclusion that the Mongolian Revolution of 1921 became a large-scale event in its entire centuries-old history, led to colossal changes in the political, economic, social and cultural life of Mongolian society.

Государственная политика Монголии по отношению к монгольской письменности

Introduction. The Mongolian script is a prime example of the written culture of Mongols. Over the past 30 years, the Mongolian State and Government have been implementing step-by-step measures to restore and apply the Mongolian script. Goals. The survey study aims to provide an analysis on the content of each event thereto, scope of corresponding activities, and outcomes of those actions — and also identify at what level these orders and decrees are not being implemented, and what should be done to ensure that these measures be fully executed. Materials. The study analyzes decrees, orders and resolutions of the President and the Government of Mongolia. It largely focuses on the ‘National Program for Mongolian Script — I, II, III’ which was conducted by the Government since 1995. Results. The paper shows that the restoration of the national written language is one of the important tasks of the state system in Mongolia. The decree of the Small State Khural (1991) on the introduction of records management in Mongolian script in the country and the corresponding decree of the Great State Khural (1994) on the intensification of work for the implementation of this goal and the development of the National Program for Mongolian Script were of great importance for the restoration of the significance of Mongolian script. In subsequent years, the solution of the tasks was facilitated by decrees of the President of Mongolia on the celebration of the 800th anniversary of Mongolian script (2003) and on the expansion and acceleration of work on the use of Mongolian script (2018). The National Program developed in accordance with the decision of the supreme legislative body has been implemented since 1995 and contains tasks for the transition to the use of two scripts from 2025. But the measures that have been carried out since 1995 at various levels did not provide a sufficient basis for introduction of the two scripts (national Mongolian and Cyrillic ones) into the public life from 2025. However, in 2020, the practice of accelerated learning of the Mongolian script and its application began. At the moment, it is necessary to identify the difficulties that may arise when using two scripts in Mongolia since 2025. Thus, for a quarter of a century, the issue of restoring the status of the national writing system has been consistently resolved.

The Results of Four Recent Joint Expeditions to the Gobi Desert: Lacertids and Agamids

The National University of Mongolia, the Mongolian State University of Education, the University of Nebraska, and the University of Kansas conducted four collaborative expeditions between 2010 and 2014, resulting in accounts for all species of lacertid and agamid, except Phrynocephalus kulagini. These expeditions resulted in a range extension for Eremias arguta and the collection of specimens and tissues across 134 unique localities. In this paper we summarize the species of the Agamidae (Paralaudakia stoliczkana, Ph. hispidus, Ph. helioscopus, and Ph. versicolor) and Lacertidae (E. argus, E. arguta, E. dzungarica, E. multiocellata, E. przewalskii, and E. vermiculata) that were collected during these four expeditions. Further, we provide a summary of all species within these two families in Mongolia. Finally, we discuss issues of Wallacean and Linnaean shortfalls for the herpetofauna of the Mongolian Gobi Desert, and provide future directions for studies of community assemblages and population genetics of reptile species in the region.

RESEARCH ABILITY OF STUDENTS OF PEDAGOGICAL SCHOOL OF MONGOL STATE PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY IN SOLVING THEIR PROBLEMS IN DIFFERENT WAYS

In this article, we tried to show the results of mastering by students of a pedagogical school Mongolian State Pedagogical University with the skills of solving word problems in different ways and methodological knowledge of teaching. Since 2012, students of the pedagogical school have been taking the elective «Mathematical Science». In the previous school, students did not solve math word problems in different ways, and therefore they faced difficulties and interesting cases, but after each training there were positive results.

A new Source on the Relationship between Hulun Buir and Outer Mongolia in 1912—1915

A little-known source — the manuscript “Historical information on the fragility of the political situation of Hulunbuir”, stored in the State Archives of the Irkutsk region is considered. Description of the manuscript, clarification of its dating, determination of the probable source base was performed by the author of the article. A comparative analysis of the historical facts presented in the manuscript was carried out. It was found that in the first two sentences the anonymous author outlined the essence of the uncertain situation that developed with the annexation of Hulun Buir to Outer Mongolia in 1912. Other components of the text are characterized: little-known information about the trip to Urga of the Bargut lama Lobsanchjamba and then about the visit of the delegation of Hulun-Buir; data on the meeting of the delegates with the Russian consul V. F. Lyuba and a description of his reaction to the fact of the annexation of Hulun-Buir to Outer Mongolia; finally, it is said about the disappointment of the ruler of Hulun-Buir — Shenfu, who realized the dependence of Hulun-Buir on the dependent, in turn, Outer Mongolia, etc. An analysis of the contents of the last page of the manuscript allows us to conclude that part of the Hulunbuir officials, close to the Manchus, expressed open dissatisfaction with the situation. The author of the article suggests that some of the Daurian officials, unlike the Barguts, who sincerely believed in the creation of a unified Mongolian state, tended to restore the Manchu dynasty and were unhappy with the unclear future of Hulun Buir.

Genghis Khan’s Yassa as Basis for the Mongol Empire’s Rule of Law

This article examines the role and significance of Genghis Khan’s Great Yassa in the system of customary law of the Mongols. We analyze the main provisions and legal principles of this medieval source of customary law. We also emphasize the need for legal registration of Mongolian state’s dynamically developing genesis. We conclude on the historical negative and positive aspects of Genghis Khan’s legislation for the Mongols themselves and their conquered peoples.

МИГРАЦИЯ И ДЕМОГРАФИЧЕСКИЕ ПРОЦЕССЫ В МОНГОЛИИ В УСЛОВИЯХ ПАНДЕМИИ COVID-19

The aim of the study is to analyze the factors of Mongolia's national security in the context of the country's security and approaches to the implementation of demographic policy. The object of the study is the demographic processes in Mongolia during the COVID-19 pandemic in the context of ensuring the country's national security. The subject of the study is the measures taken by the state authorities of Mongolia during the COVID-19 pandemic to protect national interests from internal and external threats, the patterns and principles of implementing and ensuring the national security of the state in the context of solving the country's demographic problems. The most important element of the stability of the national security of the state is demographic security, as it is responsible for the process of reproduction of the country's population, in quantitative and qualitative terms. The approach of the Mongolian state in the context of a pandemic is aimed at protecting every citizen, society and country as a whole from internal and external threats, which allows maintaining the sovereignty, sustainable socio-economic and demographic development, territorial integrity of Mongolia. The study analyzed demographic processes during the COVID-19 pandemic, including fertility, mortality, migration, nuptiality and divorce. The features of migration processes during the COVID-19 pandemic are considered, including the return of Mongolian citizens to their homeland through channels organized by the state — export flights. The links between the socio-economic situation and changes in the demographic sphere in the country are revealed. The key risks in the development of demographic processes in Mongolia during the COVID-19 pandemic, affecting the sustainability of national security, have been identified. Based on the results obtained, measures are proposed to strengthen the demographic policy in Mongolia.

The Features of Political and Religious Development of Oirats in the middle of the XIV - the middle of the XV centuries

The period starting from the second half of the XIV century. and up to the middle of the 15th century, had held under the sign of the fall of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty in China, and it was the most important one in the history of the Eastern Mongols and Oirats. Until then, the rule that only representatives of the Golden Family (that is, the descendants of Genghis Khan) were able to receive power to govern over Mongols, was, in fact, not questioned, but later the various interpretations began to appear. For example, Oirats, as non-Genghisids, had to assert their power, possessing only second roles (Taishi - the first minister). Despite the internal turmoil and the struggle with the descendants of the Yuan rulers, the Oirats did to try to create the united Mongol state headed by Taishis from the Choros Oirat clan. After a long struggle with the Eastern Mongols (who sometimes had also been led by Oirats, for example Ugechi Khashig and his son Esehu) of such Oirat leaders as Batula, Batubolo, Taiping and Toghon, the son of the latter, Esen, managed to not only to unite the Oirats in a short time, but also to create the united Mongolian state. In addition, he revived the religious and political role of the sangha, most likely the teachings of black-caped hat Karma Kagyu. This act was especially important because, besides the ideological counterweight to the right of Genghisids, one should have responded to the growth of Islamic activity in the region.

Факторы, препятствия, механизм и направления развития профессионального музыкального образования в Монголии

The article presents the results of the study of training music art professionals and music teachers in Mongolia. The comparative analysis of music education in Germany, Sweden, Israel, China, Japan and Russia is conducted. Prospective measures of development of professional music education in Mongolia are suggested. Factors, obstacles, mechanism and directions of development of the Mongolian State Conservatory – the first Mongolian academic higher education institution for training professional musicians – have been identified. The mechanism of the development of professional music education in Mongolia is the concept of the Mongolian State Conservatory. The concept includes goals, main and additional tasks, the scheme of interaction with the authorities and social partners, the model and scheme of education, the management system, financial basis and stages of organization of the conservatory.

The New Mongolian State Herder: Examining Invocations and Improvisations of the State in Rural Mongolia

This article aims to advance understandings of contemporary state-making in rural Mongolia, contingent on historical processes rather than a taken-for-granted natural category. Writing on postsocialist Mongolia often emphasizes the “retreat of the state” in rural areas; this article offers a counterpoint to this discourse by illustrating the ways in which herder livelihoods and the idealization of herder labor are actively drawn into contemporary state-making practices. Based on ethnographic research in Bayanhongor province, this article examines the interactions between an active local government administration system and pastoralist households at the subdistrict level in rural Mongolia. The analysis focuses on the implementation of two government initiatives tailored for herder households: a State Herder diploma, medal, and stamp, as well as a government–herder communication notebook. Governmentality studies, performativity theory, and the concept of improvisation provide a conceptual framework to argue that the neoliberal retreat of the state in rural Mongolia does not adequately capture the types of state-making in the 2010s. Rather, it proposes that scholars should shift attention to how the rural governance works on the ground and focus on the ways in which the state is invoked and made visible in everyday practice with attention to historical legacies. Key Words: governmentality, improvisation, Mongolia, pastoralism, the state.

Patriots, Pensioners and Ordinary Mongolians: Deregulation and Conspiracy in Mongolia

ABSTRACT This article links the heavily deregulated Mongolian post-socialist economy with the emergence of highly patriotic-nationalist movements and narratives of conspiracy and suspicion. It is argued that an extreme alienability of value in the new Mongolian market economy goes hand-in-hand with a nationalist and xenophobic perception of the extreme inalienability of Mongolian values and the Mongolian nation state. This creates a prevalent ‘moral economy’ in which values are radically uncertain, while at the same time fervently protected, and where the extremes of uncertainty/suspicion and certainty, liberal flows and nationalist cuts, co-exist. In this Mongolian moral economy, the middle-ground has thus been marginalised, leaving little room for moderate voices, ambiguity and alternative ‘tempered’ responses, and the jump from one certainty to the next is often as short and hasty as the leap from radical certainty to radical uncertainty and full-blown, all-embracing and endless suspicion.