Mongolia Region Research Articles

Precipitation recycling impacts on runoff in arid regions of China and Mongolia: a machine learning approach

This study analyses the impact of precipitation recycling on runoff in the China Mongolia Arid Region (CMAR) using ERA5 data and a Random Forest model. We address the challenge of quantifying complex precipitation recycling effects in arid regions by combining reanalysis data with machine learning. Our approach reveals significant positive feedback between precipitation recycling rate (rr) and runoff (ro), with correlation coefficients of 0.40 in spring and 0.21 in summer. Scenario analyses demonstrate that neglecting rr underestimates runoff by 11-23% in wet seasons, while doubling rr overestimates it by 8-19% during peak rainfall. The Random Forest model effectively captures rr-ro relationships, particularly for prevalent low runoff conditions in CMAR. These findings emphasize the crucial role of local water recycling in sustaining runoff and managing water scarcity in arid regions. We suggest incorporating recycling processes into hydrological models to improve runoff predictions in water-scarce environments.

Spatiotemporal Distribution and Potential Source Areas of PM2.5 Pollution in Xianyang City, Guanzhong Basin

This study employed PM2.5 concentration data for Xianyang City spanning the years 2014 to 2021, in conjunction with the global data assimilation system （GDAS）. Various analytical techniques, including backward trajectory clustering analysis, potential source contribution function （PSCF）, concentration weighted trajectory analysis （CWT）, and relevant statistical methods, were employed to investigate the temporal and spatial variations in PM2.5 pollution. Furthermore, this research aimed to elucidate the source characteristics and potential areas contributing to PM2.5 pollution within Xianyang City. The results revealed a fluctuation in PM2.5 pollution concentration in Xianyang City from 2014 to 2021, with an initial increase followed by a subsequent decrease. The peak average annual concentration, reaching 81.25 μg·m-3, was recorded in 2016. Seasonal variations indicated higher PM2.5 concentrations in autumn and winter, contrasting with lower levels in spring and summer. Winter exhibited the highest PM2.5 concentration at 116 μg·m-3, while the lowest was recorded in summer at 31.58 μg·m-3. Spatially, the annual mean distribution of PM2.5 in Xianyang City demonstrated heightened pollution in the southern and central regions, juxtaposed with lower pollution in the northern areas. Cluster analysis highlighted that Xianyang City experienced substantial influence from northwest airflow during spring, autumn, and winter, while short-distance transport dominated during the summer months. PSCF and CWT analyses indicated that the high-value potential source contribution areas were most extensive during winter, followed by spring and autumn. Conversely, the high-value area in summer was the smallest. The potential source areas were concentrated within Xianyang City and extended northwest to southeast, encompassing regions in western Inner Mongolia, central and eastern Gansu Province, central and southern Ningxia, and central Henan. In analyzing periods of heavy pollution, the study demonstrated that PM2.5 pollution in Xianyang City was primarily induced by westerly airflow. High PM2.5 concentrations were influenced by the surrounding areas of Xianyang City and the source zone, akin to regions with high potential source values during the winter. As a consequence, mitigating PM2.5 pollution in Xianyang City necessitates stringent control measures for both local and regional pollution sources. Additionally, regional collaborative efforts should be emphasized to prevent external pollution sources from exacerbating persistent pollution episodes in the region.

Ribes diacanthum Pall modulates bile acid homeostasis and oxidative stress in cholestatic mice by activating the SIRT1/FXR and Keap1/Nrf2 signaling pathways.

Cholestatic liver injury (CLI) is a pathophysiological syndrome characterized by the accumulation of bile acids (BAs), which leads to significant hepatic dysfunction. This condition is frequently associated with disturbances in BAs homeostasis and the induction of oxidative stress. Ribes diacanthum Pall (RDP), a conventional folk medicinal plant, has been employed in Mongolia, the Inner Mongolia region of China, and other areas for the remediation of hepatic disorders. However, the specific mechanism and chemical composition by which RDP exerts its effects remain unknown. The aim of this research was to assess the protective impact of RDP on CLI and probe into the underlying mechanism and pinpoint the active constituents of RDP. For this study, a CLI mouse model induced via bile duct ligation (BDL) was used to investigate the hepatoprotective effect of RDP. Mice were administered low, medium, or high doses of RDP for 6 consecutive days, beginning 3 days prior to BDL induction. Subsequently, serum biochemical parameters, hepatic histopathology, and cholestatic markers were analyzed. An HPLC-QTOF-MS/MS analysis was also conducted to identify the prototype constituents in RDP. Furthermore, component-directed network pharmacology was utilized to identify the active constituents, central targets, and signaling cascades of RDP. Eventually, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and Western blotting were adopted to confirm the associated antioxidant enzymes, BAs transporters, and metabolic enzymes. Molecular docking was applied to forecast the binding affinity between the components and core targets. RDP effectively ameliorated the pathological liver damage and cholestasis in BDL-induced CLI mice. Moreover, 43 components within RDP were identified through HPLC-QTOF-MS/MS analysis. Altogether 106 potential targets were detected, and the high-affinity targets, namely Keap1 and SIRT1, were located through the PPI network. The results of GO and KEGG analysis indicated that the reaction to oxidative stress and BAs homeostasis are significantly associated with the RDP treatment of CLI. In the in vivo experimental study, the findings revealed that RDP alleviated the BDL-induced oxidative damage. Simultaneously, RDP augmented the expressions of BAs efflux transporters and the metabolic enzymes in liver tissues, thus promoting BAs excretion and metabolism in cholestatic rodents. Mechanically, RDP attenuated hepatic oxidative stress and the accumulation of BAs, protecting the liver from BDL-induced cholestasis via the Keap1/Nrf2 and SIRT1/FXR signaling axis. The molecular docking result indicated that bolusanthol C and 3,6,3',4'-tetrahydroxyflavone possess a superior binding affinity to the two core targets (Keap1, SIRT1). These results suggest that RDP ameliorate CLI by regulating BAs homeostasis and alleviating oxidative stress through the SIRT1/FXR and Keap1/Nrf2 signaling pathways, presenting a novel therapeutic strategy for cholestasis. Additionally, bolusanthol C and 3,6,3',4'-tetrahydroxyflavone may function as key pharmacological agents in RDP, responsible for its protective effects against CLI.

A study on the effect of windbreaks of forest strips established in sandy soil regions of central Mongolia

The purpose of this research was to estimate the wind force reduction effects of different types of tree species in windbreak, based on monitoring results. Field experiments were carried out during 2010–2017 at the Research and Experimental Center for Combating Desertification (47°27′N, 103°68′E; 1967 m a.s.l) in Elsen Tasarkhai, Khugnu-Tarna National Park in Rashaant soum of Bulgan province, central Mongolia. The studied tree species included Acer tataricum, Populus sibirica, Malus Pallasiana, Ulmus pumila, Salix ledebouriana and Caragana arborescens. The wind data collected by the Hobo loggers were downloaded using Onset HOBOware® Lite Software Version 2.2.1 (Onset Computer Corporation, Pocasset, MA). The estimation procedure incorporated the 1999 version of the windbreak sub-model of the Wind Erosion Prediction System (WEPS). Windbreak effects were estimated in terms of friction velocity reduction, which is a function of wind speed and direction, distance from the barrier, tree height, porosity, width and orientation. Windbreak characteristics (windbreak type, height, width, porosity, and location) were recorded. A significant effect of windbreak on airflow reduction was proven on the leeward side of windbreak in a belt corresponding to approximately 15-30 times the height of the windbreaks and it depended on the optical porosity. During the monitoring period, the impacts were varied, but all species had reduced the wind speed to a certain distance. As a result, the annual growth rate of tree species showed the significant importance of wind protection. By identifying the effect of shelterbelts on living windbreaks and wind data using long-term monitoring in sandy soil regions of central Mongolia, advanced tree planting and forest strip establishing methods would be developed. Монгол орны ой, тайгын хөрсний урвалын орчин (pH)-ы шинж чанар ба онцлог ХУРААНГУЙ: Монгол орны хөрсний судалгаануудад ой, тайгын хөрсний урвалын орчны тухай дурдагдсан байдаг боловч хөрсний хэв шинжээр нь урвалын орчныг харьцуулан судалсан судалгааны ажлууд дутмаг байна. Энэхүү судалгааны ажлын зорилго нь Хангай, Хэнтий, Хөвсгөлийн уулсын ой, тайгын хөрсний урвалын орчны онцлог шинж чанар, ялгаатай байдлыг судлахыг зорьсон. Монгол оронд 2024 оноос өмнө хийгдэж байсан ойн хөрсний 301 зүсэлтийн 1558 ширхэг дээжийн дүн мэдээллийг ашиглав. Хөрсний урвалын орчныг хөрс усны 1:2.5 харьцаагаар Thermo scientific Orion 5 star багаж ашиглаж тодорхойлсон. Монгол орны ойд Тайгын цэвдэг, Тайгын ширэгт, Чандруулаг, Ойн бараан, Нугархаг ойн бараан, Сул чандруулаг элсэн, Татмын ойн зэрэг хэв шинжийн хөрс голчлон тархсан байдаг. Эдгээр хөрсний хэв шинж бүрийн урвалын орчныг хооронд нь харьцуулах аргаар энэхүү судалгааны үр дүнг боловсруулав. Мөн хөрсний дээд (topsoil) үе давхарга дахь урвалын орчныг доод (subsoil) үе давхарга дахь урвалын орчны агууламжтай харьцуулахаас гадна хөрсний генетик үе давхаргууд дах урвалын орчныг судалсан. R studio Тукей (Tukey) тест ашиглан ойн хөрсний хэв шинж, төрөл хооронд урвалын орчин ялгаатай эсэхийг шалгасан. Монгол орны ойн хөрсний урвалын орчин 3.50-8.55 хооронд байх бөгөөд дунджаар 6.39 буюу сул хүчиллэг шинж чанартай байна. Тукей тестийн үр дүнгээр хөрсний урвалын орчин ойн хэв шинж бүрд ялгаатай байсан (p < 0.05). Тайгын чандруулаг хөрс хамгийн хүчиллэг буюу pH=4.9 байхад Нарсан ойн сул чандруулаг элсэн хөрс хамгийн шүлтлэг буюу pH= 6.96 байна. Хөрсний дээд үе давхарга буюу О органик үе давхаргад илүү хүчиллэг (pH 6.0) байх бөгөөд доошлох тусам ойн хөрс илүү шүлтлэг (pH 7.32) шинж чанартай болж байна. Газарзүйн тархалтаар ойн хөрсний урвалын орчныг харахад Хөвсгөл нуурын баруун тал, дархадын хотгор орчмын ойн хөрсний урвалын орчин (pH) дунджаар 7.51-8.09 байна. Энэ нь бусад ойн хөрсний урвалын орчинтой харьцуулахад маш шүлтлэг бөгөөд Монгол орны зарим ой, мод илүү шүлтлэг орчинд ургадаг онцлогтойг харуулж байна. Түлхүүр үгс: Хөрсний урвалын орчин, pH, Ойн хөрс, Хөрс, Хангай, Хэнтий, Хөвсгөл, Монгол

Evaluation of the current condition of road border ports in the eastern region of Mongolia

With the expansion of regional cooperation, there is a need for Mongolia to expand trade circulation, increase transportation, and connect the border port with the transport infrastructure. The development and expansion of ports are important for local development, the social economy of Mongolia and the entire region, and is the main driving force for trade, tourism, and employment. It is essential to study and identify the ports that will benefit the national, regional and local socio-economic development in the long and medium term from the point of view of economic geography. Therefore, this research aimed to study the current condition of the border ports in the eastern region of Mongolia and determine the port that plays a key role in the socio-economic development in the region. In this study, the current conditions of 6 ports in the eastern road were assessed using 12 criteria in 8 groups by employing the Analytical Hierarchy Process method. Based on the assessment of 6 ports located in the eastern region, Ereentsav and Bichigt ports received a high rating with a 2.09 index and 1.96 index respectively. These ports have good conditions for regional cooperation, foreign trade and turnover, and passenger traffic. Based on the above research methods, it is possible to identify and prioritize the ports that need to be developed in Mongolia. Монгол улсын зүүн бүсийн авто замын хилийн боомтуудын өнөөгийн нөхцөлийн үнэлгээ Бүс нутгийн хамтын ажиллагаа өргөжиж буй өнөө үед Монгол Улсын хувьд худалдааны эргэлтийг өргөжүүлэх, тээвэрлэлтийг нэмэгдүүлэхэд, хилийн боомтыг хөгжүүлэхэд тээврийн дэд бүтцээр холбох шаардлага үүсэж байна. Боомтуудыг хөгжүүлэх, өргөжүүлэх нь Монгол улсын болон бүс, орон нутгийн нийгэм эдийн засагт чухал ач холбогдолтой ба худалдаа, аялал жуулчлал, аж үйлдвэрлэл, хөдөлмөр эрхлэлтэд гол хөдөлгөгч хүч болдог. Монгол улсын хэмжээнд үйл ажиллагаа явуулж буй хилийн боомтоос урт, дунд хугацаандаа Үндэсний болон бүс, орон нутгийн нийгэм, эдийн засгийн хөгжилд голлох үүрэгтэй, үр өгөөжтэй байх боомтуудыг эдийн засгийн газарзүйн үүднээс судлан тодорхойлж, тэргүүн ээлжид хөгжүүлэх нь нэн чухал байна. Иймд энэхүү судалгаагаар Монгол улсын зүүн бүсийн хилийн боомтуудын өнөөгийн нөхцөлийг судалж бүсийн нийгэм, эдийн засгийн хөгжилд голлох үүрэг бүхий боомтыг тодорхойлохыг зорьсон. Судалгааны хүрээнд зүүн бүсийн авто замын 6 боомтод 8 бүлгийн 12 шалгуур үзүүлэлтүүдийг ашиглан, Шатлан эрэмбэлэх аналитик аргаар өнөөгийн нөхцөлийн үнэлгээ хийсэн. Зүүн бүсэд орших 6 боомтуудад үнэлгээ хийхэд Эрээнцав боомт 2.09 индексээр Бичигт боомт 1.96 индексээр буюу өндөр үнэлгээ авч байна. Тус боомтын хувьд бүс нутгийн хамтын ажиллагаа, гадаад худалдааны эргэлт, зорчигч тээврийн хөдөлгөөн зэрэг сайн нөхцөлтэй байна. Дээрх судалгааны арга аргачлалд тулгуурлан Монгол улсын хэмжээнд тэргүүн ээлжид хөгжүүлэх хэрэгцээтэй боомтуудыг тодорхойлох боломжтой юм. Түлхүүр үгс: Хилийн боомт, Бүс нутгийн нийгэм, эдийн засгийн хөгжил, Боомтын эдийн засгийн төрөлжилт, Боомтын газарзүй

Spatial-Temporal Evolution and Cooling Effect of Irrigated Cropland in Inner Mongolia Region

Monitoring the dynamic distribution of irrigated cropland and assessing its cooling effects are essential for advancing sustainable agriculture amid climate change. This study presents an integrated framework for irrigated cropland monitoring and cooling effect assessment. Leveraging dense time series vegetation indices with Google Earth Engine (GEE), we evaluated multiple machine learning algorithms within to identify the most robust approach (random forest algorithm) for mapping irrigated cropland in Inner Mongolia from 2010 to 2020. Furthermore, we developed an effective method to quantify the diurnal, seasonal, and interannual cooling effects of irrigation. Our generated irrigated cropland maps demonstrate high accuracy, with overall accuracy ranging from 0.85 to 0.89. This framework effectively captures regional cropland expansion patterns, revealing a substantial increase in irrigated cropland across Inner Mongolia by 27,466.09 km2 (about +64%) between 2010 and 2020, with particularly pronounced growth occurring after 2014. Analysis reveals that irrigated cropland lowered average daily land surface temperature (LST) by 0.25 °C compared to rain-fed cropland, with the strongest cooling effect observed between July and August by approximately 0.64 °C, closely associated with increased evapotranspiration. Our work highlights the potential of satellite-based irrigation monitoring and climate impact analysis, offering a valuable tool for supporting climate-resilient agriculture practices.

Legumes and cereal crop rotation effect on soil fertility under selected agronomic practices in central farming region, Mongolia

The experimental study aimed at identifying the effects on soil fertility and resources using five different treatments, fallow, non-cultivated land, serial plants, leguminous plants, and grass, was conducted in a central agricultural region of Mongolia. The findings highlight the beneficial effects of cooperative agriculture for food and fodder on the restoration of soil fertility and its resulting useful effect on wheat crop yield. To ensure the stability of soil fertility in the central agricultural region, the key results of the suggest that mobile macro element nitrogen in the soil increased by 45-75.9 per cent over a 3-year rotation with spring soft wheat as the major crop grown along with leguminous plants. Furthermore, the implementation of a two-year rotation of Melilotus albus as intercropping for fodder and food purposes has been found to enhance the rate of soil cellulose decomposition. Furthermore, it has been observed that the continuation of favorable weather conditions and availability of moisture directly correlate with the extent of cellulose decomposition. The aggregate structure of the soil with a diameter of 1-3 mm, which is crucial for growing perennial grass (Agropyron cristatum), is improved by 11.87 per cent to enhance the field's soil structure and reduce erosion. In our research, it was found that legumes have a high protein content and are important role in meeting the needs of livestock and human food, while enriching the soil with nitrogen and increasing the yield of other crops. However, the practical importance of our research lies in the fact that it was established that perennial plants improve the structure of the soil. Legumes, according to our research, are rich in protein and contribute significantly to the provision of food for humans and livestock, as well as to the enhancement of soil nitrogen levels and the growth of other crops. Nevertheless, our study holds practical significance because it proves that grasses enhance the soil's structure as well.

The combined effects of climate, soil, and rhizospheric microorganisms determine the quality and suitable production zones of Stellaria dichotoma L. var. lanceolata Bge. in China

BackgroundStellaria dichotoma L. var. lanceolata Bge. (S. lanceolata) is a psammophytic plant endemic to the northwest region of China and has now developed into a cultivated economic crop. It is the original plant species used in traditional Chinese medicine as Yinchaihu. Recently, the lack of scientifically guided production zoning has exacerbated the arbitrary introduction and expansion of S. lanceolata cultivation, resulting in significant changes to its habitat and quality.MethodsThis study utilizes distribution data of wild S. lanceolata along with data from 33 environmental factors to analyze the primary habitat factors influencing the species' distribution using the Maxent model, simulating both current and future suitable production zones. Additionally, amplicon sequencing was employed to investigate changes in rhizospheric soil microorganisms across different cultivation sites and years. Furthermore, metabolomics, near-infrared spectroscopy, and the quantification of active ingredient content were used to assess the effects of various suitable zones on S. lanceolata.ResultsThe migration trends of S. lanceolata toward the central and eastern regions of Inner Mongolia revealed that elev, bio_4, bio_13, bio_11, and S_clay are the primary ecological and soil factors influencing suitability zoning, contributing a cumulative rate of 80.5%. The rhizosphere microbial environment shifted significantly from high to medium suitability habitats. As cultivation duration increased, the diversity of fungi and bacteria and the functional genera within the rhizosphere exhibited significant changes. Notably, there were substantial alterations in metabolic processes and substance accumulation during the transition from high to medium and low suitability zones, resulting in the identification of 281 and 370 differential metabolites, respectively. Additionally, the near-infrared spectral characteristics and active ingredient content of S. lanceolata in high suitability zones displayed distinct specificity. In particular, the contents of total flavonoids (2.772 mg·g−1), dichotomines B (0.057 mg·g−1), and quercetin-3-O-β-D-glucoside (0.312 mg·g−1) were notably higher, with the overall quality score surpassing that of other suitable zones. ConclusionThis study revealed the key climatic, soil, and rhizosphere microbial environmental factors influencing the quality formation of S. lanceolata and the selection of suitable production zones, offering guidance for sustainable development and production zone planning.Graphical

Collaborative governance in strong state settings: perceived voluntariness and the role of the state in Rural China

ABSTRACT Can collaborative governance as understood through Western scholarship be enacted in strong state settings? We explore the perceived nature of voluntary participation and the role of the state in long-standing local efforts at cross-sector collaboration in grassland management in China’s autonomous region of Inner Mongolia. We find that collaborative governance appears to be enacted but with variable levels of collaboration and with limited voluntary participation. We also find that the state plays multiple roles in collaboration governance, some coercive while others enabling of performance and that when voluntary participation is present, it raises levels of collaboration and performance outcomes.

Tick-borne pathogens in Mongolian ticks: The high prevalence of Rickettsia raoultii and its public health implications.

In Mongolia, a substantial segment of the population is engaged in pastoralism, leading to frequent interactions with livestock and heightened exposure to tick-infested environments. Consequently, ticks and the endemic tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) they harbor present significant health threats. In May 2021, we conducted a study to evaluate the prevalence of 9 TBPs in ticks collected from four regions in Mongolia: Uvurkhangai, Tuv, Bayan-Ulgii, and Khentii. The pathogens surveyed included Anaplasma, Rickettsia, Bartonella, Borrelia, Ehrlichia, Babesia, Toxoplasma, Theileria, and lumpy skin disease virus. Molecular analysis of 1142 ticks revealed that, although the majority of TBPs were not detected, 89.1 % of the ticks were positive for Rickettsia. Genetic characterization using the 16S rRNA and gltA genes identified the pathogen identified the pathogen Rickettsia raoultii. Species identification indicated a predominance of Dermacentor nuttalli (70.0 %) and Dermacentor silvarum (30.0 %). These findings highlight the extensive prevalence of R. raoultii in Mongolia and underscore the urgent need for heightened awareness and preventive measures due to the high level of interaction between livestock and humans. The genetic similarity of R. raoultii sequences to those found in neighboring countries suggests potential cross-border transmission, underscoring the importance of conducting similar research in surrounding regions. This study advances our understanding of the epidemiology of tick-borne diseases in Mongolia and can inform public health strategies aimed at mitigating the risks associated with these infections.

Collaborative control path of pollution and carbon reduction in industrial field in Hohhot–Baotou–Ordos region of Inner Mongolia

Collaborative control path of pollution and carbon reduction in industrial field in Hohhot–Baotou–Ordos region of Inner Mongolia

Potential Biomarkers for Neurobrucellosis Diagnosis and Treatment Based on Cerebrospinal Fluid Metabolomics Analysis.

Zhenzhu Tongluo pills (ZZTL) have been utilized for the treatment of neurobrucellosis (NB) in the Inner Mongolia region of China. However, the specific mechanism underlying the neuroprotective effects of ZZTL in NB remains insufficiently explored. Therefore, this study aimed to analyze the metabolite profiles across different groups to identify potential biomarkers for the diagnosis and treatment of NB. LC-MS analysis was used to screen differential metabolites in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples from control subjects, NB patients, and NB patients undergoing ZZTL therapy. We identified 225 common metabolites across two comparison groups (NB vs. control group and NB + ZZTL vs. NB group). Among these metabolites, 138 were downregulated, and 87 were upregulated in the NB group compared to the control group, while the levels of these metabolites were reversed by ZZTL therapy. Creatinine exhibited the highest VIP score in both comparison groups, with elevated levels observed in CSF samples from NB patients compared to controls; however, its levels were reduced following ZZTL therapy. Additionally, hypoxanthine and uric acids levels were also increased in CSF samples from NB patients, indicating dysregulation of purine metabolism in NB; however, these changes were reversed by ZZTL. Furthermore, pantothenic acid (vitamin B5) and niacinamide (vitamin B3) levels were decreased in CSF samples from NB patients, suggesting a potential link between NB and vitamin B3 and B5 deficiency; however, these changes were reversed by ZZTL. Collectively, CSF metabolomics may effectively differentiate NB patients from control subjects, providing valuable insights for NB diagnosis and treatment.

Intensive grazing confounds the patterns of plant compositional change along a soil pH gradient, not an aridity gradient, in the Mongolian steppe

AbstractAridity, edaphic variables and livestock grazing are major drivers of plant community composition across arid rangelands. Accumulated knowledge exists on the impact of each driver on community composition. Although previous studies have demonstrated changes in direct grazing impacts on ecosystem functions and community composition at different aridity levels, ranging from mesic to arid grasslands, whether a regional‐scale and continuous spatial pattern of plant compositional change along a gradient of aridity or edaphic variables is altered by grazing remains controversial. We compared the determinants and patterns of compositional changes with/without highly intensive grazing in the semi‐arid/arid regions of Mongolia. The compositional changes based on Bray–Curtis dissimilarity were investigated using generalized dissimilarity modeling, including geographic distance, aridity, soil pH and soil texture as independent variables. Aridity consistently had a significant impact on community composition, regardless of the region and presence/absence of grazing. However, a difference in response patterns was observed between the regions. The compositional change was steeper at the upper (drier) limit of aridity than at the lower limit in the arid region. This pattern indicates the vulnerability of plant communities to aridity shifts owing to future climate change, especially in the desert steppe of Mongolia, although the predictions of shifts in aridity are not accurate. In addition, regardless of the region, the effects of soil pH on the community composition were eliminated by the presence of grazing. Grazing may homogenize community composition by not reflecting the spatial heterogeneity of soil pH or nutrient availability via selective herbivory. Despite the potential indirect impacts of climate change on community composition via soil pH, the observations for only plant communities under intensive grazing might overlook regional biodiversity changes caused by global change drivers.

Mechanism of Population Outflow and Ecological Pressure Reflux in China’s Pastoral Area: S-C Gacha’s Case

In China’s rural areas, as populations flow into cities, dependence on land has significantly decreased, leading to widespread land abandonment; however, the relationship between population and land in pastoral areas differs. This study conducted a five-year tracking survey on Sunite Right Banner in Xilingol League (Inner Mongolia), where macro data and in-depth home interviews were used for the mechanisms’ analysis. The findings demonstrate that the pastoral regions’ ecological pressure has increased with population immigration. There are several factors influencing such interaction between people and rangeland: First is the cost mechanism. The increasing cost of livestock production leads herders to increase their reliance on grazing rental systems to increase the number of livestock. The grazing rental system generates income for those migrating to adjacent urban regions. Second is the institutional mechanism. The “three-separating property right systems”, a recent rural land institutional reform policy, has marketized rural individualized rangelands, leading herders to focus more on the exchange value of rangelands rather than the use value, including ecological functions. Consequently, both lessors and lessees engage in high-intensity utilization of their individualized grazing lands. Third is the natural mechanism. Climate fluctuations influence herders’ migration patterns, prompting them to leave and return to grazing lands. These ecological dynamics force herders to oscillate between survival and development, intensifying pressure on the grasslands during favorable years and preventing them from recovering while increasing the occurrence of poor years, such as droughts. Fourth is the consumption mechanism. Herders who have migrated to urban regions must continue relying on rangeland resources to sustain their livelihoods. However, lower economic outputs of livestock production hardly catch up with the higher consumption levels in urban regions, which leads migrated herders to increase their pressure on rural rangelands. The final factor is a combination of the previous four mechanisms. The interplay between these previously mentioned four mechanisms encouraged higher herder population outflow, though their reliance on rangeland resources has continued. Based on the results, we argue that these dynamic relations between rural population change and land use patterns are becoming common issues across pastoral regions in Inner Mongolia, demanding innovative solutions.

The Association of Drought with Different Precipitation Grades in the Inner Mongolia Region of Northern China

Drought has become an important factor affecting the environment and socio-economic sustainable development in northern China due to climate change. This study utilized the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) as a drought metric to investigate the correlation between drought characteristics and different grades of precipitation and rain days. The analysis was based on a long-term time series of precipitation data obtained from 116 meteorological stations located in Inner Mongolia, spanning 1960 to 2019. To achieve the objectives of the current research, the daily precipitation was categorized into four grades based on the “24-h Precipitation Classification Standard”, and the frequency of rain days for each grade was determined. Subsequently, the SPI was calculated for 1 and 12 months, enabling the identification of drought events. The results revealed pronounced spatiotemporal regional variations and complexities in the dry–wet climatic patterns of Inner Mongolia, with significant decreases in precipitation emerging as the primary driver of drought occurrences. Approximately 6% of the entire study period experienced short-term drought, while long-term drought periods ranged from 23% to 38%. Regarding multi-year trends, precipitation exhibited a weak increasing trend, while rain days exhibited a weak decreasing trend. Drought exhibited an alleviating trend, with 92% of stations displaying coefficients > 0 for SPI_Month and over 62% of stations displaying coefficients > 0 for SPI_Year. At the monthly scale, drought was most correlated with light rainfall trends and least correlated with moderate rainfall trends. At the annual scale, drought was relatively highly correlated with moderate and heavy rainfall distributions but poorly correlated with light rainfall. The results suggested that achieving the precise monitoring and mitigation of drought disasters in Inner Mongolia in the future will require a combined analysis of indicators, including agricultural drought, hydrological drought, and socio-economic drought. Such an approach will enable a comprehensive analysis of drought characteristics under different underlying surface conditions in Inner Mongolia.

Characteristics of the Rock Paintings of Paaluu and Ikh Durulj

The region of Central Asia, especially the lands of Mongolia today, is rich with parietal art including rock paintings. Research regarding these rock paintings has been carried out to a certain extent from the second half of the 20th century, mainly from the point of view of archeology. In the study of rock paintings in Mongolia, Altai, Baga Oigor, and Tsagaan Gol rock paintings have been widely studied and exhibited on the international stage by international archaeological research teams, which can be considered to be a major contribution to the study of rock paintings of the western region. Additionally, a considerable number of studies were carried out on the rock paintings of the Gobi region of Mongolia, in Gobi-Altai, Bayankhongor, and Umnugobi provinces and a certain number of books and publications have been published. At the intersection of the northern end of the Gobi region and the southern edge of the Khangai mountains, Guchin Us [Lit.Tr: Thirty Waters] soum or subprovince of Ovorkhangai Province is located. The rock paintings sites by the name of Paaluu and Ikh Durulj are located 25 kilometers northwest of the Guchin Us soum center (sub-province seat). They are the main targets of our current research.

Hydro-thermal processes and deformation of highway embankment in the active layer in a high-latitude permafrost region of Inner Mongolia in Northeast China

Construction of embankments in the permafrost region significantly changes the heat exchange conditions and hydrothermal transport processes between permafrost and the external environment, causing changes in the state of permafrost under the embankment, which in turn affects the long-term stability of embankment impacts. Considering more complex forest environment and higher technical standard for expressway than ordinary highway, the hydrothermal and deformation characteristics of the embankment are investigated through a full-scale field experimental embankment of the Genhe-Labdalin highway. Further, the study delves into the influence of changes in the active layer thickness, hydrothermal processes, and water above the frozen layer on embankment stability. The main conclusions are as follows: 1) The permafrost table, temperature, moisture and deformation of the embankment showed lateral heterogeneity, with the three-former showing a “concave shape” and the left side (sunny slope) being lower than the right side (shady slope). 2) The permafrost table appears to be unconnected (thawing interlayer), creating preferential flow, thaw zones and even through-thaw zones. 3) Accompanied by the freezing and thawing process of the embankment, the deformation of the pavement is less delayed. These findings will be helpful for better understanding the hydrothermal characteristics of embankments in different frozen ground regions, and for providing important technical guidance to ensure the safe operation of engineering projects.

Subsistence strategies and climate change as key factors in the vicinity of the Great Wall in northern China from 500 BCE

Whether, and in what ways, the association between changes in climate and the shifting of imperial frontiers (i.e. the Great Wall) could be mediated by the social responses of major ethnic groups is a question that remains unanswered. Ulanqab is a region in Inner Mongolia associated with a long history of Great Wall construction from the Warring States to the Ming dynasties (~500 BCE–1644 CE) and the Great Wall is often regarded as the boundary of the Central Plains dynasty. This paper uses Ulanqab as a case study to investigate the historical inter-relationship between changes in climate and subsistence strategies on the one hand, and the positioning of the Great Wall on the other. We determined the precise geographical coordinates of the Great Wall in this region during each dynastic period of Chinese history, and compared its location to (1) the empire’s boundaries in each dynasty, (2) evidence that is available on climate change from high-resolution paleo-climate reconstructions and (3) subsistence strategies (whether agriculture, pastoralism, or nomadism) that people adopted as recorded in historical documents. Geo-referenced information from associated archaeological sites was also used to determine the extent of habitation in different areas. We found that during the period of agriculturalist empires (the Han and Ming dynasties), the Great Wall was a frontier between farming and animal husbandry, and was located to the south of the Daqing Mountains. In contrast, during the period of pastoralist empires (the Zhao Kingdom [of the Warring States], Northern Wei and Jurched Jin periods), the Great Wall was the frontier between animal husbandry and nomadism, and was located to the north of the Daqing Mountains. These mountains (42.5°N) seem to have been the northern limit of human settlements that were based on animal husbandry and farming. We observed that, when precipitation and temperature increased, this resulted in an augmentation of agricultural production that most likely facilitated the northward expansion of the agriculturalist peoples. A decrease in precipitation, on the other hand, resulted in the shrinkage of pastures and food, triggering a southward expansion that was characteristic of the pastoralist peoples. This study attempts to provide new insights into the interrelationships among changes in climate, human societies and geopolitics in Chinese history.

Sentinel-2A Image Reflectance Simulation Method for Estimating the Chlorophyll Content of Larch Needles with Pest Damage

With the development of remote sensing technology, the estimation of the chlorophyll content (CHLC) of vegetation via satellite data has become an important means of monitoring vegetation health, and high-precision estimation has been the focus of research in this field. In this study, we used larch affected by Yarl’s larch looper (Erannis jacobsoni Djak) in the boundary region of Mongolia as the research object, simulated the multispectral reflectance, downscaled Sentinel-2A satellite data, performed mixed-pixel decomposition, analyzed the potential of Sentinel-2A satellite data for estimating the chlorophyll content by calculating the spectral indices (SIs) and spectral derivatives (SDFs) of images, and then extracted sensitive spectral features as the model training set. Spectral features sensitive to the chlorophyll content were extracted to establish the training set, and, finally, the chlorophyll content estimation model for larch was constructed on the basis of the partial least squares algorithm (PLSR). The results revealed that SI and SDF based on simulated remote sensing data were highly sensitive to the chlorophyll content under the influence of pests, with the SAVI and EVI2 spectral indices as well as the D_B2 and D_B5 spectral derivatives being the most sensitive to the chlorophyll content. The estimation models based on simulated data performed significantly better than models without simulated data in terms of accuracy, especially those based on SDF-PLSR. The simulated spectral reflectance well reflected the spectral characteristics of the larch canopy and was sensitive to damaged larch, especially in the green light, red edge, and near-infrared bands. The proposed approach improves the accuracy of chlorophyll content estimation via Sentinel-2A data and enhances the ability to monitor changes in the chlorophyll content under complex forest conditions through simulations, providing new technical means and a theoretical basis for forestry pest monitoring and vegetation health management.

Multiple Maternal Lineages of <i>Strauchbufo raddei</i> (Strauch, 1876) in Mongolia Revealed by Mitochondrial DNA

The Mongolian toad Strauchbufo raddei (Strauch, 1876) is one of widely distributed and dominated amphibian species in eastern Asian, including Mongolia. In this study, we amplified and sequenced a total of 50 samples of S. raddei, from three main regions in its Mongolian distribution range namely, Northern, Eastern, and Gobi regions. Our phylogenetic trees (Bayesian inference; BI and time-calibrated) and network analysis clearly support presence of multiple maternal mitochondrial DNA lineages for S. raddei in Mongolia. As expected, samples from these three regions were clustered separately in BI tree (Bayesian posterior probability (BPP 0.52). In addition, the population specific haplotypes, estimated genetic distances (e.g. uncorrelated p distance; ranged from 1% to 25%) and hierarchical AMOVA suggested relatively strong population genetic structure of S. raddei across Mongolia. Time-calibrated tree and ancestral range analysis showed that the first colonization of S. raddei may have occurred in Northern part of Mongolia approximately 9.63 mya, then dispersed over other parts of the country. Estimated approximate time for crossing event of S. raddei over dry steppe and semi-desert regions in Mongolia was 5.02 – 2.50 mya. Finally, high level of genetic diversity (overall; haplotype diversity, Hd = 0.93; nucleotide diversity, π = 0.011) of S. raddei were observed in Mongolia. Importantly, through this study, we contributed to closing sampling gaps in distribution range of S. raddei in Eastern Asia, which is key to better understanding species history, as well as describing cryptic lineages.