Mongolian People Research Articles

Fiscal and Tax Policy of Bogd Khanate of Mongolia (1911–1919)

Abstract As a result of the prolonged struggle for national independence, the Mongolian people, who endured over two centuries of oppression under Manchurian rule, regained sovereignty in 1911 and established the Republic of Mongolia. During this period, significant economic, social, and political reforms were initiated, laying the groundwork for the national financial system. This article examines the social, political, and economic landscape during the Bogd Khanate of Mongolia. Research into the tax and financial policies implemented during this period was conducted using historical documents and sources. Within the framework of Mongolian governmental financial policies, five ministries were established, accompanied by the enactment and implementation of various regulations about finance, taxation, and customs. Efforts were made to enhance state revenue; however, the accumulation of debt owed to foreign moneylenders and merchants, coupled with the taxation burden on Mongolian citizens, including payments to domestic nobles and religious institutions, exacerbated poverty and economic hardship among the populace. In June 1915, the autonomy of Mongolia, as stipulated in the treaty between Russia, Mongolia, and China, was abolished in 1919, resulting in the reassertion of foreign control over Mongolian governance.

THE FIRST PEDIATRICIAN OF THE MONGOLIAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC

At the present stage, the effective system of maternity and childhood protection of the Mongolian People’s Republic functions thanks to the invested work of Soviet doctors. The article provides updated information about the first pediatrician of Mongolia, a Soviet doctor, a representative of the Buryat people Sergi-Mydyk Tsyrendorzhievna Dasheeva.

Study on the "Homeland" Consciousness of the Mongolian People

This article delves deeply into the "homeland" consciousness recorded in Mongolian language texts such as Jangar and The Secret History of the Mongols, exploring its background, origins, components, and evolution. The study aims to clarify the Mongolian ecological cognition and ecological protection awareness, revealing the embedded humanistic spirit, the ideas of harmonious coexistence between humans and nature, and the underlying values.

A Brief History of the Development of Yurt Architecture

The yurt is one of the few classic architectural types of ancient tent-like and movable structures that have survived to this day, which accounts for its limited historical remains. As the most representative architectural type on the Mongolian Plateau, its classification, form, and evolution reflect the historical process and wisdom of the Mongolian people in adapting to unique terrain and climatic conditions. It embodies the unique cultural and ideological connotations of nomadic civilization, encompassing various cultural information, including the customs, production methods, and living habits of grassland residents. By roughly sorting out the evolutionary process of yurts in different historical periods, we can partially understand the ethnic characteristics of yurts as a type of Mongolian architecture and how historical and cultural development influenced their form, ultimately forming a typical cultural symbol of nomadic life today.

Gut microbiome signatures associated with type 2 diabetes in obesity in Mongolia.

Mongolian people possess a unique dietary habit characterized by high consumption of meat and dairy products and fewer vegetables, resulting in the highest obesity rate in East Asia. Although obesity is a known cause of type 2 diabetes (T2D), the T2D rate is moderate in this population; this is known as the "Mongolian paradox." Since the gut microbiota plays a key role in energy and metabolic homeostasis as an interface between food and body, we investigated gut microbial factors involved in the prevention of the co-occurrence of T2D with obesity in Mongolians. We compared the gut microbiome and metabolome of Mongolian adults with obesity with T2D (DO: n = 31) or without T2D (NDO: n = 35). Dysbiotic signatures were found in the gut microbiome of the DO group; lower levels of Faecalibacterium and Anaerostipes which are known as short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) producers and higher levels of Methanobrevibacter, Desulfovibrio, and Solobacterium which are known to be associated with certain diseases. On the other hand, the NDO group exhibited a higher level of fecal SCFA concentration, particularly acetate. This is consistent with the results of the whole shotgun metagenomic analysis, which revealed a higher relative abundance of SCFA biosynthesis-related genes encoded largely by Anaerostipes hadrus in the NDO group. Multiple logistic regression analysis including host demographic parameters indicated that acetate had the highest negative contribution to the onset of T2D. These findings suggest that SCFAs produced by the gut microbial community participate in preventing the development of T2D in obesity in Mongolians.

몽골 전통문자 교육의 현황

This study reviewed the current Mongolian government's overall traditional character education policy, analyzed how this education policy was reflected in Mongolia's general middle and high school textbooks, and examined the current status of Mongolia's traditional character education based on this. Mongolians have been using ‘Mongol bichig’, Mongolia’s own traditional script, since the 13th century and have a great heritage and history of written culture. As specified in the ‘Law on the Mongolian Language’ resolved in 2015, Mongolia's traditional script, Mongolian bichig, is ‘the precious heritage of the spiritual culture of the Mongolian people, the roots and stem of the nation's civilization, the unity of the nation, the well-being of the nation, and independence. It is a confirmation of independence, and it is also the noble duty of all Mongolians to learn, teach, use, and transmit the Mongolian language. Mongolia began using the cyrillic alphabet as the country's official alphabet in 1946, and with democratization in 1990, it is making great efforts to use both the current cyrillic alphabet and its own traditional script. The Mongolian government has been implementing many policies related to traditional characters since 1995, starting with the ‘Mongolian Traditional Characters National Program I’. Based on these policies, the subject ‘Mongolian Traditional Characters’ is currently being opened and taught in grades 6 to 12 of general middle and high schools.

몽골 문서보관소 자료를 통해 본 북한과 몽골의 문화교류

This study examined cultural exchange patterns between North Korea and Mongolia in the 1950s and 1960s based on materials from the Mongolian archives. The following characteristics emerged in the cultural exchange between North Korea and Mongolia at that time. First, In July 1952, a 72-member North Korean art troupe led by Choi Seung-hee visited Mongolia for two weeks to commemorate the 31st anniversary of the Mongolian People's Revolution. This was a very unusual move, and Mongolia was the only country where North Korea dispatched a North Korean art troupe with Choi Seung-hee during the height of the war. Second, on May 14, 1956, North Korea and Mongolia signed the first cultural agreement and established a basic framework for cultural exchange. At that time, along with the cultural agreement, North Korea signed an economic and cultural agreement with a country with close economic support and political solidarity, and Mongolia, along with Soviet Union and China, was one of the countries that signed the agreement. This shows that in North Korea's external relations, Mongolia had the same friendly relationship with Soviet Union and China. Third, as the visit of Choi Seung-hee and Anmag(安漠) to Mongolia in the 1950s and 1960s is newly revealed, their activity in cultural exchange cooperation between North Korea and Mongolia stands out. When the Pacific War broke out in the early 1940s, Choi Seung-hee toured the front lines in Manchuria and Mongolia and gave consolation performances, and after defecting to North Korea, she taught Mongolian students studying abroad in Beijing. Anmag reached her peak together with her wife, Choi Seung-hee, when she ascended to the position of Minister of Culture and Propaganda in 1956, but visited Mongolia in January of that year, just before her purge in 1958. Anmag participated as a representative of North Korea to conclude the ‘Cultural Exchange Plan between North Korea and Mongolia’ in 1958 and planned various cultural cooperation projects between the two countries.

The Prosperity and Decline of the Chinese Community in the Mongolian People’s Republic (1949-1973)

After the establishment of diplomatic relations between the Mongolian People’s Republic and the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the Chinese community in the MPR emerged as a significant link facilitating bilateral relations. The formation and evolution of this community were intricately connected to the establishment and functioning of the Association of Overseas Chinese in Mongolia and its associated institutions. Throughout this process, the political decisions made by both the Mongolian and Chinese governments played a pivotal role. Particularly for the Chinese side, the Chinese community served as a crucial platform for its foreign policy objectives during this period. Additionally, the broader context of the Socialist Bloc also greatly influenced the development trajectory of the Chinese community in the MPR.

Восьмой Халха-Джебцзун-Дамба-хутухта и Пандито Хамбо-лама Даши-Доржо Итигэлов (1911–1915 гг.)

Introduction. In 2024, Mongolia shall celebrate the 155th birthday of the Eighth Bogdo Gegeen — the political figure who founded modern Mongolian statehood in the early twentieth century. This charismatic leader was the one who took both secular and religious power over the new Mongolia. The article introduces into scientific circulation a variety of documents from the State Archive of Buryatia that show the actual attitudes of Imperial Russia’s Buddhists — articulated by the Twelfth Pandito Khambo-Lama — to the restoration of Mongolian statehood, and their reverence to the inspirer of the Mongolian Revolution. The examined official correspondence between Khambo Lama of ethnic Buryatia D.-D. Itigelov and Governor-General of Transbaikalia A. I. Kiyashko reveal a number of issues pertaining to the interaction between the spiritual leaders of Mongolia and Russia, show the actual attitude of Russia’s officials toward the Mongol statehood’s restoration, this very attitude to become, in fact, a political guarantee for the very existence of that statehood. Goals. The study attempts an insight into the official 1911–1913 correspondence between Pandito Khambo-Lama and Russian/Mongolian regional officials. To facilitate this, the paper shall analyze the correspondence between Pandito Khambo-Lama and Governor-General of Transbaikalia (December 1911 – February 1912); examine the former’s correspondence with Russian and Mongolian authorities (December 1912 – January 1913); investigate his letters discussing a dispatch of a special delegation comprising Buryat clerics and officials to Urga (April–May 1913). Conclusions. The study attests to Buryat Buddhists in the face of Pandito Khambo-Lama of Eastern Siberia D.-D. Itigelov sincerely welcomed the newly established Mongolian Government headed by the Eighth Bogdo Gegeen. The official correspondence between the spiritual leader of R ussian Buddhists and regional, Mongolian authorities shows both Imperial Russia’s cautious policy in the Mongolian question, and the bureaucratic slowness. Buryat Buddhists led by Pandito Khambo-Lama D.-D. Itigelov succeeded in arranging a special delegation to Urga to congratulate the Eighth Bogdo Gegeen and Mongolian people upon the declared independence of theirs.

From Grasslands to Global Beats: A Study of Mongolian Ethnic Music Integration in Chinese Pop

This study goes into the integration of Mongolian Ethnic Music into Chinese pop culture, exploring its historical roots, musical characteristics, and contemporary manifestations. Mongolian Ethnic Music, rooted in millennia of tradition and nomadic heritage, reflects the spiritual essence and cultural richness of the Mongolian people. Through an examination of ancient origins, influences of shamanism and Buddhism, and modern developments, the evolution of Mongolian music is traced, showcasing its diverse melodic, rhythmic, and tonal qualities. The classification of Mongolian music genres and styles, including the Hulunbuir, Xilingol, Ordos, and Alxa styles, highlights regional distinctions and stylistic variations. Furthermore, the study examines the integration of Mongolian Ethnic Music into Chinese pop through the works of renowned musicians such as Tengger, Han Lei, and Dege Ma, exemplifying a fusion of traditional melodies with modern sensibilities. Ulan Tuya, Qi Feng, and Yang Weiling represent contemporary artists contributing to the diversification of Chinese pop music with their unique styles. This exploration underscores the cultural significance of Mongolian Ethnic Music as a bridge between traditions, enriching the global music landscape while preserving the heritage of the Mongolian people.

Resonance of Tradition: A Comprehensive Exploration of the Historical and Cultural Dimensions of Mongolian Ethnic Music in China

This paper studies the historical evolution and cultural inheritance of Mongolian ethnic music within China, particularly focusing on the nomadic traditions entrenched in Inner Mongolia. Tracing its roots from ancient times to the contemporary era, the research illuminates the profound connection between the musical heritage of the Mongolian people and their nomadic lifestyle. Through a meticulous historical analysis and literature review, the study unfolds the intricate layers of Mongolian ethnic music, showcasing the significance of traditional instruments and vocal techniques. The paper explores the impact of imperial influences, socio-political changes, and the challenges faced in the past decades on the musical landscape. Furthermore, it highlights the contemporary expressions and global resonance of Mongolian ethnic music, emphasizing its role as a cultural ambassador. The research not only contributes to the nuanced understanding of this musical tradition but also adds valuable insights to the broader field of ethnomusicology, fostering cross-cultural dialogue and addressing the dynamics of cultural preservation in a global context.

Fiscal and Tax Policy of Bogd Khanate of Mongolia (1911–1919)

Abstract As a result of the prolonged struggle for national independence, the Mongolian people, who endured over two centuries of oppression under Manchurian rule, regained sovereignty in 1911 and established the Republic of Mongolia. During this period, significant economic, social, and political reforms were initiated, laying the groundwork for the national financial system. This article examines the social, political, and economic landscape during the Bogd Khanate of Mongolia. Research into the tax and financial policies implemented during this period was conducted using historical documents and sources. Within the framework of Mongolian governmental financial policies, five ministries were established, accompanied by the enactment and implementation of various regulations about finance, taxation, and customs. Efforts were made to enhance state revenue; however, the accumulation of debt owed to foreign moneylenders and merchants, coupled with the taxation burden on Mongolian citizens, including payments to domestic nobles and religious institutions, exacerbated poverty and economic hardship among the populace. In June 1915, the autonomy of Mongolia, as stipulated in the treaty between Russia, Mongolia, and China, was abolished in 1919, resulting in the reassertion of foreign control over Mongolian governance.

Historical aspects of the origin and formation of military and political relations between Mongolia (Mongolian people’s republic) and Russia (the USSR) (1860–1939)

Historical milestones of the birth and formation of military and political relations between Mongolia and Russia over a long period of time, from the 1860s up to the beginning of World War II are analysed in the article on the basis of normative legal documents. It was the policies pursued by Russia and the USSR, along with a variety of external and internal factors, that were decisive in Mongolia’s gaining independence and sovereignty. The nature of the influence of Russia (USSR) on the formation and strengthening of the Mongolian army is considered in the article; as well as the participation of military instructors of the Russian Imperial Army and military representatives of the Russian Communist Red Army in the formation and training of Mongolian military troops and military units in the 1910-1920s; the main aspects of military and political co-operation between the USSR and Mongolia in the 1930s and on the eve of World War II are studied, in particular the specifics and issues of supplying weapons to the military units of the Mongolian army, as well as the role of the Soviet Union in the development of the Mongolian army. On the basis of previously published archival sources and materials, a detailed analysis of the organisation and construction of the Mongolian People’s Republic’s armed forces, their combat training and manning is carried out. Conclusion about the determining influence of military-political relations between Russia and Mongolia in the studied period on the formation of the Mongolian state and its armed forces, as well as on strengthening of Mongolia’s position in the international arena is made in the article.

Implementation of Language Policy in USSR in 1930s (Buryat-Mongolian Language)

The study focuses on analyzing the development of the Buryat-Mongolian language and writing system amidst socio-cultural transformations during the Soviet period. Textbooks, methodological guides, as well as ethnographic and sociolinguistic reports from the 1930s, serve as the research materials. Educational materials on teaching methods for the Buryat-Mongolian language and writing in general education institutions are of research interest for analyzing approaches to practical implementation of the educational process and material content. This historical period is marked by the transformation of societal structures resulting from extensive sociopolitical processes not only in our country but also in the Mongolian People’s Republic and the People’s Republic of China. The Soviet leadership reasonably paid special attention to eradicating illiteracy and implementing language policy in the country. It was revealed that education in the Buryat-Mongolian ASSR faced linguistic, methodological, and staffing contradictions. The process of studying the native language underwent systematic reforms within a relatively short historical period. The traditional Old Mongolian script was replaced by Latin in 1931 and then by Cyrillic in 1939, leading to a decline in educational quality. Such transitions were accompanied by restructuring educational and methodological aspects of the educational process.

Decreased river runoff on the Mongolian Plateau since around 2000

ContextMongolian Plateau is one of the largest contingent arid and semi-arid regions of the world. Rivers on the plateau provide vital water for millions of indigenous Mongolian people and numerous endangered wildlife, but are increasingly disturbed by climate change and human activities. Yet, long-term changes in river runoff across the plateau remain poorly studied due to data unavailability.ObjectivesThis study aimed to analyze the temporal trends in gauged river runoff on the Mongolian Plateau, identify drivers of the observed changes, and evaluate CMIP6 models' performance in simulating historical runoff changes across the plateau.MethodsWe compiled possibly the largest database of long-term (20 - 71 years) river runoff for the plateau comprising measurements over 30 major rivers. Statistical analyses were conducted to assess trends in river runoff and correlations between runoff and climatic variables. Additionally, we applied the Budyko curve framework to identify the influence of human activities on river runoff in specific basins. Furthermore, we compared ground-measured runoff data with simulations from CMIP6 models to evaluate the ability of CMIP6 models to replicate runoff dynamics in typical arid and semi-arid regions.ResultsWe observed pervasive and abrupt reduction in runoff in 21 out of the 30 rivers within 5 years before or after the year of 2000. Variations in river runoff were most significantly caused by changes in total precipitation (TP). In particular, 27 rivers experienced abrupt TP changes around 2000, and there was a significant positive correlation between annual fluctuations in TP and river runoff for 18 rivers. In addition to climate factors, the influence of human activities was identified in certain basins. The CMIP6 simulations failed to capture the abrupt changes in runoff occurred pervasively across the plateau around 2000.ConclusionsAround 2000, major rivers on the Mongolian Plateau, especially in Inner Mongolia, experienced runoff declines, primarily due to TP changes. Human activities like dam construction and water diversion further influenced local runoff. CMIP6 historical runoff simulations were inaccurate across the plateau, highlighting the difficulty of simulating river runoff in this critical region. Our study could contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the water resource changes on the Mongolian Plateau, with direct implications for enhancing ecological conservation and management practice.

AN ANALYSIS OF THE MENTALITY FOR MONGOLIANS’ SYMBOLISM BASED ON THE MYTH OF “KHUKHU NAMJIL”

Analyzing the symbolic mindset from an overview of the content of any myth is an expression of essence from phenomena, and it will be an important tool for determining the characteristics of the nation's mentality. Therefore, many legends of the origin of the Morin huur (Horsehead fiddle) were collected and compiled in the course of my research; then 15 selected myths which are called similar versions of Khuhu Namjil tied to the main motif with the main idea of "A young man who lost his magical flying horse to a villain was depressed and made fiddles for him” were confirmed that it’s the same version of the same myth in terms of their main content, narrative, and characters. Accordingly, this research mainly used historical material, genre division, text analysis, motif, and comparative study methods. In order to analyze the symbolic mentality of the Mongolians from the myths by using some theories of ritual, cultural studies, and aesthetics, it was analyzed and determined that "the characters of the horse with the wings of desire and the mother “Etugen” were created in their world of intellection". These characters are represented by the legendary “Jonon” black horse, flying winged horse, mermaid, and “Altai”s maiden and it was proved from the content that the abstract concept of spirit is believed to be as a winged horse, and the talisman of the owner of mountains and springs has been worshiped as a mermaid and a fairy for ages. In addition, it has been proved that the symbols of colors (such as green color representing “Lus” or the owner of Springs, black color as civilian, bravery, and splendor, and red color is as warmth and joy) and numbers (one, two, three) were created from Mongolian people's devotion and belief are reflected in the legend by using the events and the narratives in it. Basically, by deepening and expanding the scope of the study of the legend of the fiddle, which previous researchers studied, and by clarifying the meaning of the event and the ideology or mindset of the characters, it is not only innovative but also brings one step closer to the further research of the legend related to the origin of the fiddle thus, the results of this research are significant and a pioneer in the study of fiddle mythology.

The Development Process of Qinghai Mongolian Folk Songs Through Anthropological Perspectives

Background and Aims: Qinghai Mongolian folk songs, cherished expressions of the Mongolian community's cultural identity, are the focal point of this anthropological study. The research aims to investigate the development process of Qinghai Mongolian folk songs through anthropological perspectives. Materials and Methods: Employed a comprehensive methodology integrating both ethnomusicology and anthropology on in-depth interviews with two key informants renowned for expertise. Additionally, participant observation techniques were applied, carriers of traditional knowledge, and agents fostering cultural continuity within the community. Results: This study resoundingly emphasizes the critical need to safeguard the exquisite tapestry of Qinghai Mongolian folk songs, serving as a melodious gateway into the soul of the Mongolian community. Beyond preservation, the study sparks curiosity for future exploration, beckoning researchers to unravel the regional intricacies, contemporary transformations, and dynamic community-driven conservation strategies that shape the ongoing narrative of these cultural treasures. Conclusion: This research contributes to the discourse on safeguarding traditional cultural expressions while celebrating the enduring beauty of Qinghai Mongolian folk songs and honoring the rich heritage of the Mongolian people in Qinghai.

VECTORS OF RUSSIAN-MONGOLIAN COOPERATION

The article notes the dominance of multi-vectorism in Mongolia’s foreign policy at the present stage, which is due to the complexity and contradictory nature of the geopolitical situation, as well as the expectation of increased risks of ensuring the national security of the Mongolian People’s Republic. In this regard, the authorities of the republic are strengthening cooperation with the so-called «third neighbor» (USA, Japan, South Korea, Australia, EU countries, etc.) in the hope of balancing the influence of the two main neighbors: Russia and China.In relations with China, Mongolia’s growing dependence on China in the economic sphere (China steadily retains the first place in the MNR’s foreign trade turnover) raises concerns. Until a certain point, such a role was played by Mongolia’s second neighbor - Russia (more precisely, the Soviet Union, where the republic was integrated practically at the level of union republics), which fully ensured the republic’s economic and political security. When forming the strategy of cooperation between Russia and Mongolia, the Russian side has to take into account the concerns of the Mongolian side: the growing volume of economic cooperation between Russia and China significantly increases Mongolia’s fears about Russia’s inability to resist Chinese influence. In this regard, Mongolia positions the expansion of cooperation with «third neighbors» as an integral part of ensuring its national interests.

“2020 ОНЫ УЛСЫН ИХ ХУРЛЫН СОНГУУЛЬД НЭР ДЭВШИГЧДИЙН САНХҮҮГИЙН ЗАРЦУУЛАЛТАД ХИЙСЭН ШИНЖИЛГЭЭ”

Within the frame of this article, the authors aimed to clarify the relationship between the financial reports, financing structure, and cost comparison of the candidates in Ulaanbaatar by analyzing the financial reports of the candidates for the 2020 election of the State Great Khural issued by the National Audit Office. Additionally, the study involves analyzing the reports of candidates from the Mongolian People's Party (MPP), Democratic Party (DP), and National Labor Party (NLP) currently serving in Mongolian Parliament. The comparison includes examining public and local funds, elucidating spending differences and characteristics, and clarifying the impact of changes in election laws on candidate costs.

Cross-Cultural Differences in Perception of Facial Trustworthiness Based on Geometric Morphometric Morphs

We report on an experimental study that explores cross-cultural differences in perception of trustworthiness based on facial traits. In the first part of the experiment, individual male and female neutral photographs of Buryats (Mongolian people of Eastern Siberia) were rated on trustworthiness by men and women from the same population. The trustworthy-looking facial traits were investigated by means of geometric morphometrics, and analysis of the facial action units using artificial neural network (FaceReader). Significant associations between facial traits and perceived trustworthiness were revealed only for male photographs rated by men. Facial shape pattern along trustworthy–untrustworthy vector corresponded to the facial femininity-masculinity vector for Buryats, as well as to the positive-negative vector of the emotional connotation of the neutral facial shape. “Untrustworthy” facial shape was characterized by relatively narrower lower jaw, lower set eyebrows, as well as a lower position of the “Brow Lowerer” facial action unit—a frown. In the second part of the experiment, two geometric morphometric morphs, representing “trustworthy” and “untrustworthy” Buryat male facial shapes, were judged on trustworthiness by male representatives of Buryat, Tuvan (Mongolian people of Southern Siberia), Russian, Indian, and East African (Tanzanians) cultures. The results revealed that in all studied samples the “trustworthy” male portrait was rated significantly higher on trustworthiness than “untrustworthy” one. However, perceived trustworthiness, and agreement of portrait judgments with those of Buryats significantly declined with geographic and genetic distance between populations.