Monastic Community Research Articles

Female Ordination and the Buddha’s Dispensation with a Critical Analysis of <em>Brahmacariya</em> Practice

When the Buddha permitted women to join the monastic community, he predicted that the Buddha’s dispensation (Buddhasāsana) would last only a thousand years due to their ordination. Many scholars dispute this claim. Bhikkhu Anālayo, for example, argues against the Cullavaggapāḷi’s prediction of decline, suggesting it has not materialized, and he explores the impact of the Bhikkhuṇī Order on the dispensation’s longevity. This article investigates how female ordination affects the dispensation and critically analyzes the practice of brahmacariya (celibacy). It utilizes both primary and secondary sources for a thorough critique of existing scholarly views and a detailed examination of brahmacariya within canonical and commentarial texts. The analysis suggests that while female ordination might not cause the complete disappearance of the Buddhasāsana, it could influence the dynamics between monks and nuns, potentially leading to a decline in brahmacariya and spiritual progress within monastic life. Thus, the article supports Bhikkhu Anālayo’s view that the issue lies more with the practice of brahmacariya and spiritual advancement rather than the overall longevity of the dispensation.

Buddhist Monastic Healing Tradition with Special reference to <em>Bhesajjamañjusā</em>

The intricate relationship between Theravada Buddhism and traditional healing practices is vividly illuminated through the lens of the Bhesajjamañjusā (Bhes), a Pāli manuscript known as the "Casket of Medicine." This ancient text stands as a testament to the harmonious interplay of spirituality, holistic medicine, and compassionate care within the Theravada tradition. This article unravels the intricate tapestry of the Bhes by exploring its historical context, authorship, and intended audience. The study delves into the medical content of the Bhes, encompassing disease diagnosis, medicinal characteristics, and the rules of health articulated in this unique work. Additionally, the study investigates the traditional role of the Buddhist monastic community in medicine, emphasising the evolution of Vinaya regulations over time. This paper aims to substantiate the profound role of traditional healing practices within ancient Buddhist monastic traditions, highlighting the significance of Bhes. This exploration seeks to provide a comprehensive understanding of the significance of Bhes, contributing to a nuanced perspective on the intersection of Buddhism and medicine within the context of the Buddhist monastic community. The Bhes underscores the holistic approach to health advocated by the Buddhist teachings. While the Theravadin position on medicine places restrictions on monks treating the general public, the Bhes allows for internal use, highlighting the compassionate ethos of Theravada Buddhism by emphasising care and support for fellow monks in their pursuit of physical and spiritual wellbeing. The journey from its historical roots to its current status highlights the evolving dynamics in healthcare practices, with the Bhes standing as a timeless symbol of the enduring connection between ancient wisdom and the pursuit of wellbeing.

Repressed Catholic Priests and Monks during the First Years of the Occupation and Annexation of the Republic of Lithuania: June 1940–June 1941

The subject investigated has not been systematically researched at scientific level until now. The claims made by historians and other authors are fragmented and controversial. However, the publications of historical sources necessary for the subject under research, particularly Volume 1 of the list of names published by the Genocide and Resistance Research Centre of Lithuania, as well as numerous archival documents make it possible to reveal the main features of the reprisals of Lithuanian priests and monastic communities in 1940 and 1941. During the occupation and annexation of the Republic of Lithuania, local Catholic priests, monks and nuns were not among the most important groups of the repressed, i.e. among politicians, white collar workers, officers and public figures. Nevertheless, the registration and surveillance of priests, the cases of the annihilation especially of the Russian Orthodox Church and smaller religious groups of the aggressor country, testify indirectly to the fact that the oppressive apparatus of the Empire that was hostile to religion was getting ready to annihilate the Lithuanian Catholic priests at least as a separate group. The NKVD / NKGB took efforts to win over as many priests as possible. About 115 priests (7.9% of all the priests) were repeatedly summoned to the agencies with this purpose in mind but the result was as poor: 12 of those who promised to arrive (0.8% of all priests, 10.4% of recruited priests), three of them staff workers (0.2% of all priests, 2.6% of recruited priests) showed up. According to the available research results, during the period examined a total number of repressed Catholic priests and monks in Lithuania (of the local Church Province, the part of the Roman Catholic Metropolitan Archdiocese of Vilnius assigned to Lithuania, and Polish refugees) is about 111 persons: 64 (almost 58%) Lithuanian and 47 (over 42%) Polish. From the Lithuanian Church Province or its monasteries and convents 61 persons were repressed, out of whom 53 were diocesan priests, five were monks ordained as priests, three were from monastic communities (one brother and two sisters): 21 from Kaunas diocese, 19 from Vilkaviškis diocese, 11 from Panevėžys diocese, and five from Kaišiadorys and Telšiai dioceses each; all of them were Lithuanians. From the Lithuanian part of the Roman Catholic Metropolitan Archdiocese of Vilnius and the monastic communities based there, about 15 priests (three Lithuanian and 12 Polish) were subject to repression; fewer than half of them were priests, the others were nuns. Taking together the instances in the parts of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Belarus and Poland, based on the facts from a longer period (from September 1939 until July 1941), the number of the repressed priests in the archdiocese is at least 62 persons: 34 were refugees who suffered from repression; about 27 of them were nuns. The number of people who suffered greatly, i.e. were imprisoned and exiled before Hitler’s war against the “Bolsheviks” were at least 57 Lithuanian Catholic priests and monks (from the local ecclesiastical province and the part of the Roman Catholic Metropolitan Archdiocese of Vilnius). The number of Lithuanian priests – 17 – who were killed by the retreating Soviet Army troops at the first stage of the war between Nazi Germany and the USSR that has been known for a long time remains the same. Nevertheless, counting the priests killed not only in the Lithuanian Church Province and in the part of the Vilnius Archdiocese that belonged to Lithuania but also analogous facts from the parts that belonged to Belarus and Poland, the number of the victims of this category amounts to at least 26. The war that broke out between Hitler and Stalin opened the road to freedom for some priests and members of the monastic community. Between 16 and 18 priests were liberated or freed themselves from prisons in Lithuania, while most of Polish priests who were taken to forced labour camps or exiled were granted an amnesty; later they joined Polish army units and became chaplains. The number of arrested, imprisoned, taken to forced labour camps and exiled priests and members of monastic communities is much higher than those who promised to collaborate with the KGB and joined the staff, which demonstrates that the Lithuanian clergy as well as those who arrived from Poland avoided collaborating with the occupying powers; almost all of them resisted, did not succumb to this temptation and did not act under compulsion.

양 무제의 육식 금지령에 나타난 윤리적 쟁점 - 『단주육문(斷酒肉文)』을 중심으로

In East Asian Buddhism, the consumption of meat by monks has not been permitted since the sixth century. During this period, Emperor Wu of Liang, drawing from the teachings of Mahayana sutras including the Mahāparinirvāṇa sūtra, issued the 'Prohibition of Alcohol and Meat' (斷酒肉令). At the heart of Emperor Wu's prohibition of meat consumption is the ethical judgment that “meat-eating is inherently killing.” Emperor Wu maintained a strict stance that monks should not eat meat under any circumstances, including naturally deceased meat (自死) or for health reasons. This view contrasted with early Buddhist food ethics, differentiating between meat-eating and killing and allowing for the Three Pure Meats (三種淨肉). He also believed that monastic vegetarianism was essential for realizing the ideals of Mahayana Buddhism and establishing a harmonious society. Emperor Wu asserted that meat-eating inherently distanced one from all practices leading to nirvana, making enlightenment unattainable. While he did not directly challenge the autonomy of the monastic community in the Duan jiu rou wen (斷酒肉文 Abstinence from Alcohol and Meat), he argued that meat-eating monks had effectively forfeited their monastic status and could be punished according to secular laws. This paper examines the differing perspectives of Emperor Wu and the Vinaya masters on the ethical issues surrounding meat-eating and vegetarianism as presented in the Duan jiu rou wen. This decree, officially issued by the Emperor to standardize Buddhist vegetarianism, is significant as the historical starting point of East Asian Buddhism—not just as a theory but also as a practice. It also serves as a point of comparison for the contemporary approach to this ethical issue, which is still relevant today.

Monastery heritage as a tool for reconciliation pre-post earthquake: The case of Saint Simeon Monastery

Preserving heritage ensures it is passed to future generations, cultural heritage is crucial in shaping community’s identity through this journey. Religious heritage has huge importance in continuation and give sense of belonging within religious communities. Monastery heritage has a crucial role in safeguarding the rich past and traditions of monastic communities, with a focus on their religious and societal significance. Antioch is a city, a home of coexistence. Beside the city’s rich culture, the city is known as central point promoting reconciliation through three main monotheistic religions. The city has faced several earthquakes in history, it was completely destroyed and later rebuilt again. Unfortunately, recently an earthquake occurred and destroyed not only the historical religious buildings but the greatness of coexistence. Reconciliation is the key of healing after the disaster by fostering unity, comprehension and collaboration. Saint Simeon Monastery in Antioch is a significant example of resilience, rebirth, and reconciliation, as evidenced by the references to its response to challenges in its history. Preservation of the monastery should include physical and psychological strategies so that the place can welcome everyone, heal, and coexist with its values and characteristics post-challenge. The research aims to create a framework to increase cultural awareness within the community about the importance of Saint Simeon Monastery as religious heritage site. This will promote to build the bridge of reconciliation post-earthquake. Method of the study includes both quantitative and qualitative research to examine the significance of Saint Simeon Monastery’s religious history brings communities together in Antioch after the earthquake.

Monastic Unrest on the Border of Carolingian Italy: The Strange Case of Abbot Poto of San Vincenzo al Volturno

ABSTRACT In the aftermath of the Carolingian conquest of the Italian peninsula, a commission was held in Rome to judge the case of Poto, Abbot of San Vincenzo al Volturno, who was accused of infidelitas for refusing to pray for Charlemagne’s safety. The papal inquiry reveals the existence of two factions within the monastic community, each of them likely following a different approach to monastic discipline. However, regional politics soon overlapped with internal strife, as the group led by Ambrogio Autpert was supported by Duke Hildeprando of Spoleto and the other led by Poto was supported by Pope Adrian I. This article analyses this episode of monastic unrest by focusing on the opportunities that political uncertainty opened for public authorities in an unsettled border area. It also aims to challenge the ethnic framework (assuming a Lombard faction opposed to a Frankish faction) which historiography has traditionally applied when interpreting Poto’s act of disobedience.

Breaking the Saffron Wave?

In recent years, thousands of Buddhist monastics have marched in antiregime protests across South and Southeast Asia. Among the largest and most influential nonstate organizations in the region, monastic communities appear to be powerful agents for political change. Yet, like similar movements over the last half-century, recent monastic protests did not produce broader political resistance among the monkhood, nor did they lead to substantive political change. What explains this? Why has antigovernment activism among Buddhist monks been less durable or impactful than other types of monastic activism, such as the varieties of chauvinistic nationalism that have risen to prominence in recent years? This article draws on three case studies—Myanmar, Thailand, and Sri Lanka—to offer one answer: sangha capture, the strategic use of law, bureaucracy, patronage, and coercion by governing elites to induce compliance among monastics while also muffling and marginalizing would-be critics.

Who was Victor Mattaritanus (Cassiodorus, Institutiones 1,29,2)? A Note on the Contribution of Exiles from Vandal Africa to the Reception of the Augustinian Doctrine of Grace

Abstract This article proposes a hypothesis about the identity of the Victor Mattaritanus who, as attested by Cassiodorus, produced a “corrected Augustinian edition” of a work by John Cassian, most probably Collatio 13. He would have been a bishop of Mactaris (Maktar, Tunisia) in the province of Byzacena, deported to Sardinia under the reign of the Vandal king Thrasamund, who joined the monastic community established by Fulgentius of Ruspe in Cagliari. This community housed a rich library and an active scriptorium and soon became a stronghold of Augustinianism, but it is very likely that the works of Cassian, an author dear to Fulgentius, were also widely read, copied, and edited there.

Religious Attraction and Its Discontents: Tensions Surrounding the Monachization of Baptized Jews in Early Modern Italy

Both female monasticism and Jewish conversion acquired an accentuated significance in Catholic Europe during the age of reformations. Their convergence was ritually expressed in the celebration of the monastic vestition of converts from Judaism. This article centres on the experiences of baptized Jewish girls who entered monastic communities, based on an analysis of cases from central and northern Italy. It argues that Church authorities valued the radical break of formerly Jewish girls with the religious traditions of their ancestors. Yet at the same time, the highly esteemed attraction to female monasticism on the part of baptized Jews could also arouse considerable anxiety, which led to distancing attempts. These, the article suggests, were manifested by restricting converts’ monastic professions to designated institutions; by giving the cold shoulder to baptized Jews who took the veil and socially isolating them within their communities; or by not assisting sickly neophytes to fulfill their religious vocations.

My Friend the Cross: Cross-Directed Prayer in Seventh-Century Monastic Communities and New Media Studies

While scholars have long recognized the central importance of the cross within Syriac-speaking Christian communities in late antique Mesopotamia, the question of how physical crosses functioned as aids for prayer has only recently begun to be explored. The present article addresses this question with respect to East Syrian monastic communities in seventh-century Mesopotamia, focusing on the context of the monastic cell. Bringing together accounts of cross-directed prayer in Syriac monastic literature with archaeological evidence for crosses from the region, the article concludes that physical crosses played an important role as mediating devices of divine presence that were both always at hand and the frequent objects of monastics’ sensorial attention. These conclusions are subsequently discussed through the lens of recent research from the field of new media studies toward the goal of understanding how cross-directed prayer may have served to bridge monastic spirituality and sociality in Mesopotamia.

Resonet Vox Fidelis: Scribal Colophons and Ecclesiastical Reform in Medieval Iberia

ABSTRACT A remarkable number of early medieval manuscripts produced in the Iberian Peninsula preserve scribal colophons recounting the circumstances of their production and naming their makers. Because of their highly unusual level of detail, these statements offer invaluable evidence to understand the individuals and communities who produced them, as well as the broader religious and cultural environment in which they originated. Focusing on the corpora of the Beatus manuscripts and Iberian Latin Bibles, this article considers patterns of colophon use amongst Christian monastic communities in the north-central and western regions of Iberia between the tenth and the mid-thirteenth century. This article argues that significant changes to colophon composition and use coincide with, and were related to, wider ecclesiastical reform and political transformations in the Peninsula in the late eleventh century, which promoted the abandonment of native ecclesiastical practices and critical shifts in monastic culture.

Sacred Resurgence: Revitalizing Buddhist Temples in Modern China

This paper examines the construction and maintenance of Chinese Han Buddhist temples in modern China against the backdrop of societal transformation. Initially, it analyzes the profound impact of social changes since the mid-19th century on Buddhist monasteries, including political turmoil, economic development, and urbanization. Furthermore, the paper explores how temples were reconstructed and revitalized within this historical context, highlighting the monastic community’s unwavering commitment to protecting the Dharma and ensuring its enduring presence. Additionally, this paper also explores the role of charismatic monks in enhancing the sanctity of temples and the influence of Buddhist institutional frameworks on the dynamics of state and society. The study employs a multifaceted analysis to understand the complex interplay between temple construction, economic development, and the cultural heritage of Buddhism in China.

Karmelici Bosi w kręgu zainteresowań aparatu bezpieczeństwa PRL na terenie województwa krakowskiego w świetle zachowanych sprawozdań kierowanych do MBP i MSW w latach 1947-1970

In the times of the Polish People’s Republic, national security issues and, at the same time, surveillance of the society and suppression of many institutions – the Catholic Church included - were in the hands of appropriate services, modelled on the Soviet NKVD. At first this was the Ministry of Public Security and since 1956 the Security Police. The first part of the article presents the organization of security units in the voivodship of Cracow and the distribution of monastic communities, while the second throws light on the activities of these units uh the basis of preserved reports sent from Cracow to the Ministry of Public Security and the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Officials of the Security Police who worked in the voivodship and district departments took a close interest in the Discalced Carmelite monks, taking account of their wartime past, pastoral activity and connections with the Church hierarchy. To ensure influence upon the life of the Discalced Carmelite Province as well as access to information on monastic internal issues they gained several secret collaborators within the congregation itself and its lay associates. The article is the first attempt at showing the methods of the Security Police (SB) and the Security Office (UB) activities directed at monastic orders; methods aiming at subjugating to the authorities not only the orders themselves, but the whole Catholic Church in Poland.

The Situation of Monastic Houses in Soviet Moldova

In 1944, after the withdrawal of the Romanian authorities from Bessarabia, some members of the monastic community, priests, deacons, cantors, especially those with higher education and high hierarchical positions, took refuge. The number of monasteries was considerably reduced. If in 1945 in the new Soviet republic - the Moldovan SSR - 25 monasteries and hermitages were registered (16 - monks and 9 - nuns), in 1956 - 15, of which 7 - monks and 8 - nuns. The only continuously functioning monastery was that of Japca. The cruel mechanism of liquidation of places of worship was part of the strategy of the Soviet authorities to eradicate all forms of spiritual expression and resistance. These radical actions of the Soviet state had a boomerang effect on religious sentiment. It is therefore no coincidence that the collapse of the Soviet Union was inextricably linked to the widespread religious movement in the present-day Republic of Moldova, followed by the reopening of the places of worship dismantled by the Soviets.

Death and burial in late medieval women’s houses

ABSTRACT The approaching death of a member of a women’s monastic community set a series of rituals in motion. These rituals accompanied the sister from the end of her life through her death and finally to her interment. These began with the community gathering for the last moments of the sister’s life, through the preparation of the body for burial, the procession to the church and rituals there. They end with the burial of the sister and a procession by the community back to their church. How the rituals were performed – and who performed them, whether the sisters themselves or a priest – varied based on the order to which the house belonged. Further shape of these rituals and the texts that they used reflect an order’s understanding of death. This paper considers the rituals for the dying and the dead described in books belonging to two medieval women’s communities.

Consecrating the Peripheral: On the Ritual, Iconographic, and Spatial Construction of Sui-Tang Buddhist Corridors

The corridor-enclosed cloister characterized Buddhist monasteries during the Sui and Tang periods. This architectural form was first introduced by Emperor Liang Wudi from the palace and continued to prevail until the eleventh century, when a gradual transformation occurred, resulting in the corridor evolving into a long, narrow image hall. This paper examines the ritual and pictorial programs of the Sui-Tang Buddhist corridor to gain insight into this transformation and its ceremonial significance. Specifically, it explores how the corridor was empowered by the state-sponsored maigre feast as a place of worship and how the monastic community of a particular school appropriated the space to celebrate an unbroken dharma-transmission lineage from the Buddha to a specific group of Chinese patriarchs. Lastly, the paper aims to comprehend the adaptation of the corridor into an image hall, which was influenced by political and religious shifts in the eleventh century when Buddhist monasteries were no longer designated as the ritual arena for the state-sponsored maigre feast.

O versiune românească necunoscută a Imnului Acatist din a doua jumătate a secolului al XVII-lea

The present paper aims to describe, date and localize the Akathistos Hymn found in an unknown Romanian manuscript preserved at Muzeul Olteniei (Craiova): Rom MS I 529. The codex contains the Psalter (accompanied by the Odes), the Akathistos Hymn, the Paraklesis to Theotokos and the Holy Apostle. These texts were copied by father Theofil, the scribe of the manuscript. These works are important due to two outstanding reasons: they contain Slavic passages and multiple translation variants inserted inside the text using numbers or other graphic devices. Both of these features can be found in the manuscripts produced in Bisericani Monastery (Moldova) in the first part of the 17 th century. As a consequence, the codex transcribed by Teofil was analysed in the context of the production of the scriptorium from Bisericani. Teofil must have been part of the Moldavian monastic community and his manuscript must have been copied there. Textual, contextual, linguistic, philological and palaeographical evidence are given in this sense. The study of the watermarks (Torch with letters HSE, unicorn encircled by letters, Allmodpappier, horn and the ligature 4AD), their types and subtypes, brought to light the fact that the Romanian manuscript was copied between 1680-1690. The philological comparison between the Biblical and Marian texts from these manuscripts and the oldest ones from Bisericani (Rom MS BAR 540 and 170) stressed the link between the former and the latter. On top of that, the comparison offered new insight into how the multiple translation variants were more or less preserved, hinting to an early contamination between different manuscripts. 3 The Slavic passages (mostly headings and initial lines) preserved in the Romanian texts were studied as a mnemonic device used by the monks from Bisericani Monastery who, according to the liturgic program of the community, were used to chanting the Akathistos Hymn in Slavonic.

Exploring the population and social structure of the Kyiv Eparchy through monastery service records from the 19th to early 20th century

The article aims to examine the informative potential and utility of service records from monasteries within the Kyiv Eparchy, spanning the period from the 19th to the early 20th century, in elucidating the status of Orthodox monastic communities and the social composition of their monastic life. The research methodology adheres to principles of objectivity, historicism, systematic analysis and critical evaluation of sources. Utilizing a method of historical reconstruction, this study seeks to construct a comprehensive understanding of the status of monasteries and the social makeup of their monastic communities from disparate historical evidence. A notable scholarly contribution of this study lies in its pioneering effort to investigate, analyze and assess the informational value of service records from monasteries within the Kyiv Eparchy during the specified period. Conclusively, service records, or formulary information, served as a prevalent form of annual reporting within monastic institutions throughout the 19th century. These unpublished documents serve as primary sources for documenting monastic life during the synodal period, playing a pivotal role in the administrative and communal life of monasteries and their inhabitants. Beyond simply detailing the composition of monastery brotherhoods and listing the names of monks and novices, these records contain rich insights into the individual lives of monastics. Examining such sources facilitates the identification of the number of monastics in Kyiv Eparchy monasteries, the motivations driving their monastic commitment, their roles within monastic communities, average demographics, social standing, educational attainment and even personal characteristics and behaviours. By leveraging these archival materials, scholars are afforded the opportunity to analyze the fluctuating demographics and composition of monastic communities within the Kyiv Eparchy throughout the synodal period, thereby enabling prosopographical investigations and contributing to a deeper understanding of Orthodox monasticism in the region.

Thomas Aquinas and the Qualification of Monastic Labor

Early monastic communities in Egypt were veritable laboratories for the practice of Christian virtue; perhaps surprisingly, they were also large-scale coordinated communities of labor. That manual labor should have been part of anchoritic life is not obvious; given that hermits were leaving the cities and the usual occupations of life in the world, there might be a question as to why they would seemingly return to such occupations having sought the purity of living alone in the desert. Combining Platonic thought with radical Christianity, the monks found a way to make the maximally spiritual life also a worker’s life. The architects of this form of life saw manual labor as a means for achieving self-sustenance, an effective weapon against temptation, a resource for the support of the needy, and a vital component in the monks’ ascetic program. The argument of this paper is that this powerful cultural consensus on the centrality of work to monastic life endured for almost a thousand years before it came to be qualified, by Thomas Aquinas among others. When Thomas Aquinas writes on the purposes of manual labor he is entirely traditional. However, Aquinas ends up diminishing the extent to which the pursuit of the traditional goods gained by the practice of manual labor is obligatory for monastics. Aquinas’s discussion of manual labor as an element of monastic life is a definite departure from the tradition. In the typically polite fashion of a scholastic theologian, Aquinas shifts away from Augustine and re-interprets St. Paul in unprecedented fashion. His argument is influenced by his own commitment to a new form of monastic life, which was changing not just theologically but as a result of the evolving backdrop of the social and economic realities with which religious life necessarily interacted.

A Study on the Literacy Rate of Buddhist Sangha in the Tang Dynasty

The Buddhist sangha played a crucial role in ancient China, exerting significant influence on its society through religious identity and cultural knowledge. However, not all members of the monastic community were literate. The Tang Dynasty introduced an examination system that assessed monks’ proficiency in reciting Buddhist scriptures, determining their eligibility for ordination. Simultaneously, efforts to remove unqualified monks and nuns provided an opportunity to estimate the literacy rate within the monastic community. A statistical analysis of the literacy rate offers a novel perspective for understanding the evolution of Buddhism, the intricate relationship between religion and politics, and the role of the monastic community in local society during the Tang Dynasty.