Molten Salt Electrolysis Research Articles

Research on the Hierarchical Separation of Rare Earths and Lithium from Rare Earth Molten Salt Slag

Lithium is an important non-renewable resource, and the study of the tiered separation of rare earths and lithium from rare earth molten salt slag is an important approach to solving the current global resource shortage. This article adopts a sulfuric acid leaching process and a lithium-containing solution iron lithium extraction separation process to recover lithium from rare earth molten salt slag. The method systematically investigates the impact of sulfuric acid concentration, liquid-to-solid ratio, leaching temperature, leaching time, pH, P507 concentration, phase ratio, extraction temperature, and extraction time on the lithium extraction effect and iron lithium separation effect in rare earth molten salt slag. The results show that under the conditions of a sulfuric acid concentration of 0.9 mol/L, a liquid-to-solid ratio of 8:1 mL/g, a leaching temperature of 70 °C, a leaching time of 90 min, a pH of 0.9, a P507 concentration of 50%, a phase ratio of 5:3, an extraction temperature of 30 °C, and an extraction time of 20 min, the lithium leaching rate reaches 97.8%, and the separation of iron and lithium is fully achieved. This method can efficiently recover the valuable element lithium from rare earth molten salt slag, which is of great significance for the subsequent preparation of lithium products and the realization of a closed-loop production of rare earth alloys by molten salt electrolysis.

Electrochemical conversion of rice husk in molten salts to photocatalyst for CO2 photoreduction

Photocatalysts obtained from waste biomass by molten salt electrolysis can photocatalytically reduce carbon dioxide under simulated photosynthesis, which is of great significance for carbon neutrality. Herein, a molten-salt electrochemical synthesis strategy that silicon-carbide nanowires mixed carbon (SiC/C) is obtained at the cathode by absorption of molten salt and migration in molten salt with the rice husk (RHs) is especially used as the anode is reported. This study shows the excellent absorption and migration effect of molten salt on RHs pyrolysis products SiO2 and CO2. At the same time, the unilateral consumability of the anode is more advantageous in device design. The obtained SiC/C photocatalyst has an excellent performance in photocatalytic reduction of CO2.

Enhanced graphitization of CO2-derived carbon anodes via Joule heating reformation for high-performance lithium-ion batteries

Molten salt electrolysis of CO2 represents a promising technology for highly efficient CO2 capture and the production of economically valuable CO2-derived carbon materials. In this study, we established a 100-A-scale molten salt CO2 electrolysis cell to synthesize hundreds of grams of CO2-derived carbon. Subsequent Joule heating at 2800 °C transformed these materials into high-quality graphite. Further composite modification with asphalt and petroleum coke effectively reduced surface area, resulting in high-performance graphite for lithium-ion battery. The CO2-derived graphite anodes demonstrated high reversible capacities ranging from 297.7 to 378.1 mAh g−1, exhibiting outstanding rate capability and stability over 300 charge-discharge cycles at a current density of 1 A g−1. Finally, we assembled a coin full-cell using AG-2/2/6 anode and LFP cathode, which demonstrated good cycling performance. XPS analysis revealed a significant reduction in oxygen content by the post-reformation, facilitating the formation of highly graphitized structures. This study not only pioneers the up-class synthesis of CO2-derived carbon but also underscores its potential for sustainable energy applications, particularly in lithium-ion battery technology.

Sustainable Processing of Ultralow-Cost Petroleum Cokes Into Ultrastable Self-Doped Fe3C@CNT Catalysts for High-Efficiency HER.

Petroleum cokes are largely used as low-cost anodes in aluminum industries and general fuels in cement industries, where large amounts of CO2 are generated. To reduce CO2 release, it is challenging to develop green strategies for processing abundant petroleum cokes into high-value products, because there are abundant hetero-atoms in petroleum cokes. To overcome such issues, a sustainable electrochemical approach is proposed to convert ultralow-cost high sulfur petroleum coke and iron powders into high-efficiency catalysts for hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). During molten-salt electrolysis, raw petroleum cokes are converted into CNTs via heteroatom removal and the catalytic effect of Fe, forming Fe3C nanoparticles on the sulfur and nitrogen co-dopped carbon nanotubes (Fe3C@S, N-CNTs). The electrochemical reaction analysis using the continuum model suggested that the rate-determining step referred to the slow transport of mobile ions inside the porous cathode. Because the self-doped S and N atoms massively alleviated the energy barrier for H* absorption and H2 desorption (i.e., promoting HER kinetics), the as-prepared Fe3C@S, N-CNTs exhibited low overpotentials at 10mAcm-2 in acidic (96mV) and alkaline (106mV) solutions with ultralong-term duration (200h). This study offers a sustainable approach to convert ultralow-cost petroleum cokes into ultrastable catalysts for high-efficiency HER.

Characterisation of oxide-ion diffusivity and phonon vibrations in inert anode materials for molten salt electrolysis

Characterisation of oxide-ion diffusivity and phonon vibrations in inert anode materials for molten salt electrolysis

Analysis of deliquescent chloride salt by laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy with controlled uniform precipitation

BackgroundThe electrolytic efficiency in magnesium (Mg) production by molten salt electrolysis is mainly affected by the chloride content, which is determined by the metal content in the cooled molten salt. Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is a potential element detection method in cooled molten salt element detection. However, the cooled molten chloride salt is easily deliquescent, which greatly affects the LIBS detection results. ResultsTo solve the problem, a liquid-phase precipitation method based on the addition of a dispersant named as controlled uniform precipitation (CUP) method was proposed to pretreat the samples. Compared with the conventional powder compacting method and precipitation method, the CUP obtained the highest spectral stability and detection accuracy. The average relative standard deviation (ARSD) of Mg, Ca, and Na decreased from the 51.80%, 77.04%, and 44.01% to 6.77%, 6.27%, and 29.97%, the determination coefficient of the calibration curve (R2) increased from 0.044, 0.084, and -0.109 to 0.974, 0.954, and 0.802, and the average relative error (ARE) decreased from 58.49%, 52.46%, and 99.78% to 8.58%, 11.28%, and 29.38%, respectively, compared with the powder compacting method. Further investigation showed that the CUP method suppressed the sample deliquescence and the coffee ring effect, leading to the performance improvement of LIBS quantitative detection. SignificanceThe CUP provided an effective method of detecting metal elements for deliquescent samples and showed applied potential for other precipitable elements detection.

Anode process on gold in KF–AlF<sub>3</sub>–Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> melt

In the conditions of resource saving and carbon footprint reduction, the development of oxygen–releasing anodes for technologies of production of important metals and alloys by electrolysis of molten salts seems to be an urgent task. To determine the degree of “inertness” of a particular anode material, data on the kinetics and mechanism of the anode process on a material not subject to oxidation are required. In this connection, the anodic process on gold in the KF–AlF3–Al2O3 melt for electrolytic aluminum production was investigated by cyclic and square–wave voltammetry methods. The influence of temperature (715 and 775 оC) of the melt, the content of Al2O3 in it (from 0.1 to saturation), as well as the polarization rate (0.05–1 V/s) on the kinetics and some features of the mechanism of the investigated process was determined. An assumption is made that oxygen release on gold without dissolution of the substrate takes place in the region of overvoltages from 0 to 0.8 V. It is shown that the process includes the stages of electrochemical adsorption and desorption of the intermediate product, the first of which is limited by the diffusion of electroactive anions to the anode.

Electrochemical behavior of tantalum ions in molten salt electrolysis for nano-powder preparation

This research focused on analyzing the electrochemical properties of tantalum ions in NaCl-KCl molten salt during the extraction of tantalum and the synthesis of tantalum nano-powder. Tantalum ions were dissolved from the anode. Linear sweep voltammetry, cyclic voltammetry, square wave voltammetry, and chronoamperometry were employed to delve into the reduction and diffusion processes of tantalum ions. The study determined the diffusion coefficient, the nucleation process, and the deposition potential for tantalum ions. The findings revealed that the electrode reduction process of tantalum ions involved a three-step reaction: Ta5+→Ta3+→Ta+→Ta. This reaction was shown to be reversible and diffusion-controlled. The nucleation mode of tantalum ions was identified as instantaneous nucleation followed by progressive nucleation as the potential increased by chronoamperometry analysis. The cathodic deposition product was characterized using XRD, SEM, EDS, and TEM techniques, confirming the nanoscale granular nature and microstructure of the deposition products.

Electrowinning of Light Metals from Molten Salts Electrolytes

Light metals such as lithium, sodium, potassium, magnesium and aluminium may be produced by molten salts electrolysis. Aluminium is produced by the Hall-Heroult process by electrolysis in molten salts. It is by far the largest in terms of production volumes and for metals second only to iron and steel, but it carries a very high carbon footprint mainly due to the wide-spead use of electricity based on based on coal. Magnesium is currently produced by silicothermic reduction of MgO according to the Pidgeon process. However, electrolysis in molten chloride electrolytes using MgCl2 as feedstock may return as it is more sustainable. The current Kroll process for producing titanium is energy intensive and requires lots of work as well as having very low productivity. Sodium is produced by electrolysis in a chloride electrolyte. This process may be improved by using sodium oxide as raw material and inert oxygen evolving anode.

Emerging Technologies for Decarbonizing Silicon Production

AbstractSilicon (Si) is an important material for alloying, solar photovoltaics, and electronics. However, current methods of producing silicon require energy consumption of around 11–13 kWh/kgSi and direct carbon emissions are 4.7–5 tons CO2 per ton Si which conflicts with global efforts to limit climate change. In this work, we discuss several promising methods for reducing or eliminating carbon emissions from the silicon production process. Such methods include using biocarbon, integrating the current process with carbon capture and utilization/storage (CCU/CCS), metallothermic reduction, hydrogen reduction, and molten salt electrolysis. We present the positive aspects and challenges of each approach. Biocarbon coupled with CCU/CCS is the most industrially mature technology and can be carbon–neutral or -negative but is not carbon-free. Hydrogen directly reducing silicon dioxide is not thermodynamically favorable, but it may be viable to use hydrogen in conjunction with other processes to reduce emissions. Metallothermic and electrochemical methods of production are promising and have the potential to create high-purity silicon with no reduction-related carbon emissions but have only been demonstrated at lab scale. Economic viability will likely be the next determining factor for which technologies are more widely researched and implemented. Graphical Abstract

Exploring the graphitization transformation mechanism of deposited carbon in molten salt electrolysis: A novel insight from molecular structure models

Molten salt electrolysis graphitization is a novel method for the electrochemical graphitization, offering significant technological advantages. Researchers have shown keen interest in preparing graphite materials through molten salt strategies. However, there is still a lack of comprehensive research methodologies at the molecular scale for the removal of heteroatoms and rearrangement of carbon atoms in different amorphous carbon conversion systems. To address the above issue, the deposited carbon (DC, a coking byproduct) was converted into graphitized material (electrolysis products, EP) through the electrochemical method in this study. By processing Transmission Electron Microscope images with Python programming, aromatic skeleton structure information was quantitatively extracted. The evolution of the structure of DC was studied using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Based on information about elemental content, aromatic skeletal structure, and heteroatom functional groups, average chemical structure models were constructed for DC and EP, and relevant chemical bond parameters were statistically analyzed. Then, the influence of the electric field on the structural transformation of amorphous carbon in molten salts was investigated. The research results show that the electric field significantly affects the graphitization transformation process of amorphous carbon in molten salts, enhancing the interaction between calcium ions and DC molecules, increasing the diffusion coefficient of particles in the system, and promoting the formation of more sp2-hybridized carbon atoms, thus forming a more compact aromatic ring network. This study provides a new research method and molecular/atomic-level insights for a deeper understanding of the mechanism of graphitization transformation of amorphous carbon.

Quantum Chemical Calculation on ScCl3-NaCl-KCl Molten Salt System

Background: The study of the ionic structure of the ScCl3-NaCl-KCl molten salt system is of guiding significance for the production of metal Sc and Sc alloy by molten salt electrolysis using ScCl3-NaCl-KCl molten salt system as electrolyte. However, limited research has been conducted on the structural analysis of molten salt within this system using Raman spectroscopy. Methods: The Gaussian and GaussView programs are used to simulate Sc-Cl ionic groups that may exist in the ScCl3-NaCl-KCl molten salt system based on density functional theory (DFT) and calculate their theoretical Raman spectra. Then, the wave function analysis of these Sc-Cl ionic groups is carried out using the Multiwfn program. Results: When the ScCl3-NaCl-KCl system is used as the electrolyte, it is considered that the 8 Sc atom in ScCl74− ionic groups is most easily reduced by electrochemistry at the cathode when the concentrations of eight Sc-Cl ionic groups are the same. In Sc2Cl7− Sc2Cl82− and Sc2Cl93− ionic groups, the sites that are most likely to attract electrophiles to attack and react are 1Cl and 7Cl, respectively, and the two Sc atoms located in the "chlorine bridge" structure contribute the most to LUMO orbitals, and nucleophiles will preferentially attack the Sc atoms located in the "chlorine bridge" structure. For Sc2Cl7−、Sc2Cl82− and Sc2Cl93− ionic groups, which have two Sc atoms, the bonds formed between Sc and Cl in the "chlorine bridge" structure have the smallest bond order, so the bonds formed by Sc and Cl in the "chlorine bridge" structure break first during the reaction, and then the bond formed by Sc and Cl located at both ends of the whole structure breaks Conclusion: The key information, such as bond length, point group structure, and theoretical Raman spectral characteristic peak after optimization, are obtained by the Gaussian and GaussView programs. The net atomic charge in each ionic group, the direction of electron migration during the formation of the ionic groups, the sites where electrophilic and nucleophilic reactions are most likely to occur in each ionic group, and the order of bond breaking during chemical reactions are obtained by the Multiwfn program.

Preparation of Si/TiSi2 as high-performance anode material for lithium-ion batteries by molten salt electrolysis

The photovoltaic industry has generated a large amount of silicon cutting waste (SiCW), whose disposal presents an urgent environmental issue. In this study, micron-sized flaky silicon cutting waste was transformed into silicon nanowires, and Si/TiSi2 nanocomposites were synthesized through molten salt electrolysis using photovoltaic SiCW and TiO2 as precursors. Lithium-ion batteries using the resulting composites as an anode exhibited an initial discharge specific capacity of 1936.1 mAh g⁻¹ and an initial Coulombic efficiency (ICE) of 83.99 %. After 200 cycles, its reversible specific capacity reached 1133.8 mAh g⁻¹, surpassing that of the molten salt electrolytic pre-oxidized SiCW (535.5 mAh g⁻¹) and untreated SiCW (385.0 mAh g⁻¹). This study presents a novel approach for modifying silicon-based anode materials while offering a sustainable and environmentally friendly method for recycling photovoltaic silicon waste.

Enhancing the charge storage capacity of ultrathin metal–organic framework nanosheets with CO2-derived carbon nanotubes

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) hold promise as efficient electrode materials for supercapacitors, but their practical application is hindered by the intrinsic low electrical conductivity. Here, we employ CO2-derived carbon nanotubes based on molten salt electrolysis (MSE-CNTs) as the framework to guide the growth of nickel-based MOF (Ni-MOF). The resulting MSE-CNTs/Ni-MOF composite exhibits an impressive specific capacitance of 1714.2 F g−1 at 1 A g−1, 1.45 and 1.26 times greater than bare Ni-MOF (1185.7 F g−1) and CVD-CNTs/Ni-MOF (1364.3 F g−1, the composite of Ni-MOF and commercial CNTs produced by chemical-vapor-deposition), respectively. Moreover, the assembled hybrid supercapacitor (MSE-CNTs/Ni-MOF//active carbon) achieves a remarkable specific capacitance of 136.5 F g−1 at 1 A g−1 and an energy density of 54.8 Wh kg−1 at 850 W kg−1, standing among the best of the state-of-the-art. The superior capacitive performance of MSE-CNTs/Ni-MOF than CVD-CNTs/Ni-MOF can be attributed to the better electrical conductivity of MSE-CNTs, the thinner nanosheet architecture of MSE-CNTs/Ni-MOF, and the effective electrically conductive network within the composite. This work marks a paradigm shift from greenhouse gas CO2 to excellent energy storage materials, paving the way for addressing both the energy and climate issues simultaneously.

Controlled synthesis of tantalum-based solid solution and exploration of electrochemical properties as soluble anode for molten salt electrolysis

Metal oxycarbide solid solution possesses an extensive potential applications due to its remarkable physical features. In this paper, TaCxO1-x solid solution is successively and controllably synthesized by carbothermal reduction of Ta2O5. Based on the thermodynamic calculation, the possible reactions under different conditions in the carbothermal reduction process were analyzed, which provides theoretical guidance for controllable regulation and optimization of carbon thermal reduction process. The effects of carbon content, sintering temperature, and holding time on the synthesis of TaCxO1-x solid solution were investigated and the ideal process parameters for the synthesis of single-phase solid solution were identified. A single-phase solid solution with a carbon‑oxygen ratio close to 1:1 can be created as a soluble anode if the synthesis temperature is 1500 °C, the holding period is 6 h, and the molar ratio of C/Ta is 3.42. Moreover, the process feasibility of preparing metal tantalum by electrolysis of tantalum-based soluble anode is discussed, which provides a new method for metal tantalum preparation.

A novel process for producing Al-Si alloy utilizing aluminum-silicon oxide extracted from coal fly ash

As a kind of solid waste rich in aluminum and silicon resources, the comprehensive utilization of coal fly ash (CFA) will be of great significance to reduce environmental pollution and improve economic benefits. This work proposed a facile and environmentally friendly cleaning process for producing Al-Si alloy by molten salt electrolysis from CFA extract, aluminum-silicon oxide (ASO). The dissolution behavior and dissolution reaction mechanism of ASO were studied by high temperature visual dissolution experiment, thermodynamics analysis and phase analysis. Due to the chemical reaction between ASO and cryolite-based melt, ASO powder dissolves rapidly in melt and the dissolution rate of ASO is not determined by the phase compositions but by the mass ratio of Al2O3/SiO2. For replenishing the oxide concentration in the electrolyte as quick as possible, the proper mass ratio of Al2O3/SiO2 is in the range of 0.75–7.5. The electrochemical co-reduction behavior of Si (IV) and Al (III) ions on the W electrode was performed by cyclic voltammetry and square wave voltammetry. The results indicated that the reduction of Si (IV) ion in the melt was a two-step irreversible process. Hypoeutectic Al-Si alloy and eutectic Al-Si alloy were prepared by galvanostatic electrolysis using ASO as raw material. This innovative technology can realize high-value recycling of CFA resources and low carbon emission, low energy consumption production of Al-Si alloy.

Study on separation and purification of titanium alloys (TC4-6Al-4V) by molten salt electrolysis

With the widespread expansion of titanium applications and its significant increase in usage, the issue of recycling titanium resources after consumption has emerged. Focusing on titanium alloys with high usage, such as TC4 (Ti-6Al-4V), this article proposes a titanium separation and recovery method based on molten salt electrolysis. This method thoroughly analyzes the characteristics of elements in TC4 and electrochemical principles, ensuring that vanadium in the TC4 alloy does not undergo electrochemical dissolution when the electrolysis potential is below 0.3 V vs Pt. Subsequently, through electrochemical analysis, it was discovered that the precipitation of aluminum ions is influenced by concentration. Therefore, by controlling the concentration of aluminum in the eutectic molten salt, such as increasing the electrolyte concentration and shortening the electrolysis time, the precipitation of aluminum can be effectively avoided. Under the experimental conditions mentioned above, vanadium elements deposit at the bottom of the crucible in the form of anode slime, while aluminum dissolves and remains in the electrolyte. Meanwhile, titanium ions in the cathode region undergo electron reduction and deposit in the cathode area in the form of titanium, thus achieving precise separation of alloy elements. Experimental verification shows that the purity of the obtained titanium reaches 99.17 atomic percent. Therefore, this molten salt electrolysis method, which combines the physical properties of alloy elements with electrochemical principles, not only provides a new perspective for the separation and recovery of titanium and other critical metals, but also offers new research directions for the recovery technology of other alloy elements.

Neodymium oxide concentration state recognition model in neodymium molten salt electrolysis process based on flame image features

Accurate recognition of the concentration state of neodymium-oxide (Nd2O3) in the neodymium (Nd) molten salt electrolysis process provides crucial feedback information for online adjustment of process parameters during Nd metal batch production. This paper proposes a Nd2O3 concentration state recognition model based on flame image features. The model employs the lightweight flame segmentation algorithm (FEC-Net) to accurately segment the flame regions in the collected Nd electrolysis cell flame images. Then, using image processing techniques, geometric and color features of the flame regions are extracted. Finally, a Support Vector Machine (SVM) is used to establish a nonlinear mapping model between the flame features and Nd2O3 concentration states. This model classifies the collected flame image dataset to verify the Nd2O3 concentration state during a certain period of Nd molten salt electrolysis. Experiments demonstrate that the recognition accuracy of SVM reaches 96.09%, meeting the monitoring requirements of the Nd molten salt electrolysis process.

Selective Recovery of Rare Earth Elements from Waste Magnets by Molten Salt Electrochemical Process

Neodymium magnets are the strongest permanent magnets with Nd2Fe14B as the main phase. In applications where high temperature operation is expected, such as motors for electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), Dy is added to prevent degradation of magnetic properties. Currently, the demand for EVs and HEVs is growing rapidly, and Dy-doped NdFeB magnets are used in these vehicles. Thus, a large amount of waste magnets will be generated in the future. Moreover, for heavy rare earths such as Dy, high-quality resources are extremely unevenly distributed in the world, and there are already concerns about their stable supply. Given the above background, there is a need to develop an efficient recycling process that can replace the conventional wet recycling process, which has a large environmental impact and energy consumption.Our research group has proposed a process for the separation and recovery of rare earth elements (REEs) from the waste of neodymium magnet using molten salt electrolysis and alloy diaphragms [1,2]. The principle of this process is shown in Fig. 1. First, the Nd and Dy ions in the waste magnet used as the anode are dissolved into the molten salt by anodic dissolution. Next, the dissolved Nd or Dy ions are reduced on the surface of the diaphragm, which functions as a bipolar electrode, and only one of the ions is reduced to form an alloy. Furthermore, Nd or Dy diffuses through the alloy diaphragm and is dissolved into the molten salt by anodic dissolution on the cathode chamber side surface of the diaphragm. Finally, Nd and Dy are separated and recovered on the cathode.So far, we have reported that selective permeation of Dy [2] and Nd [3] is possible using LiCl-KCl as the molten salt and a solid Ni-RE alloy as the diaphragm. In the present study, we selected LiF-CaF2 as a more practical fluoride-based molten salt and Hastelloy as a more durable diaphragm, and investigated the electrochemical permeation of RE. We also considered that liquid Fe-RE alloy is expected to be a more desirable diaphragm with higher durability and faster permeation. As a fundamental study, the formation behavior of liquid Fe-Nd and Fe-Dy alloys was investigated, and the results will also be reported.[1] T. Oishi, H. Konishi, T. Nohira, M. Tanaka, and T. Usui, Kagaku Kogaku Ronbunshu, 36, 299 (2010). [in Japanese][2] T. Oishi, M. Yaguchi, Y. Katasho, H. Konishi, and T. Nohira, J. Electrochem. Soc., 167, 163505 (2020).[3] T. Oishi, M. Yaguchi, Y. Katasho, and T. Nohira, J. Electrochem. Soc., 168, 103504 (2021). Figure 1

Sustainable Production of Hydrogen through High-Temperature Molten Salt Electrolysis

The green and cost-effective production of strategic materials, including steel on a large scale is pivotal for fostering sustainable industrial development. Hydrogen emerges as a key component for clean steel production, but its sustainable and economical generation remains a barrier to widespread utilization in iron and steelmaking, as well as other applications. Conventional water electrolysis, a common method for carbon-free hydrogen production, faces economic challenges, equipment corrosion, and the use of expensive catalysts with high over-potentials, limiting its viability. Additionally, the transportation of hydrogen from the electrolyzer to utilization units poses cost and safety concerns. Addressing these challenges, this presentation discusses the electro-generation of hydrogen in high-temperature molten salts. The generated hydrogen can then be utilized in situ for the production of metals, alloys, and other commercially valuable materials. Leveraging high temperatures improves the thermodynamic potential and efficiency of the water-splitting process. Remarkably, electrolytic hydrogen produced in molten salts, operating at a potential of around 1 V, has the capacity to facilitate the production of a diverse range of materials such as Fe, Mo, W, Ni, and Co-based alloys. References K. Xie, A.R. Kamali*, Energy Convers. Manag. 251 (2022) 114980D. Qiao, K. Xie, A.R. Kamali*, Mater. Adv. 1 (2020) 2225K. Xie, A.R. Kamali*, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 44 (2019) 2 4353A.R. Kamali*, RSC Advances 10 (2020) 36020A.R. Kamali, US2021009415 (2023)K. Xie, A.R. Kamali*, Green Chem.21 (2019)198