Moire Interferometry Research Articles

Measurement of Opening Displacement of Single and Bifurcated Notches by Moiré Interferometry

Static experiments are performed to confirm the COD method that is the only method to measure the energy release rate of fast propagating cracks just after bifurcation. The crack opening displacement (COD) of the mother cracks of bifurcated cracks is measured in static condition by Moire interferometry. Thin notches are used instead of cracks. The bifurcation angle is 13.5 degrees that is the same as the angle of bifurcation of fast propagating cracks in PMMA. The measured CODs are proportional to the square root of the distance from the nominal tip of the mother notch. Stress intensity factor of the bifurcated notch is obtained from the measured CODs through the formula of the COD of single cracks. The experimental results say that the stress intensity factor of a bifurcated crack has the same value as that of the single crack whose length is the same as that of the bifurcated crack. This is caused by the small bifurcation angle of 13.5 degrees. It is concluded that the COD method is correct to measure the energy release rate of rapidly bifurcating cracks.

(3) Measurement of Opening Displacement and Stress Intensity Factor of Bifurcated Notch by Moire Interferometry

(3) Measurement of Opening Displacement and Stress Intensity Factor of Bifurcated Notch by Moire Interferometry

Evolution of the fracture process zone in high-strength concrete under different loading rates

For cementitious materials, the inelastic zone around a crack tip is termed as fracture process zone (FPZ) and dominated by complicated mechanism, such as microcracking, crack deflection, bridging, crack face friction, crack tip blunting by voids, crack branching, and so on. Due to the length of the FPZ is related with the characteristic length of the cementitious materials, the size, extent and location of the FPZ has been the object of countless research efforts for several decades. For instance, Cedolin et al. (1) have used an optical method based on the moire interferometry to determine FPZ in concrete. Castro-Montero et al. (2) have applied the method of holographic interferometry to mortar to study the extension of the FPZ. The advantage of the interferometry method is that the complete FPZ can be directly observed on the surface of the sample. Swartz et al. (3) has adopted the dye penetration technique to illustrate the changing patterns observed as the crack progress from the tensile side to the compression side of the beam. Moreover, acoustic emission (AE) is also an experimental technique well suited for monitoring fracture process. Haidar et al. (4) and Maji et al. (5) have studied the relation between acoustic emission characteristics and the properties of the FPZ. Compared with the extensive research on properties of the FPZ under quasi-static loading conditions, much less information is available on its dynamic characterization, especially for high-strength concrete (HSC). This paper presents the very recent results of an experimental program aimed at disclosing the loading rate effect on the size and velocity of the (FPZ) in HSC. Eighteen three-point bending specimens were conducted under a wide range of loading rates from from 10 -4 mm/s to 10 3 mm/s using either a servo-hydraulic machine or a self-designed drop-weight impact device. The beam dimensions were 100 mm�100 mm in cross section, and 420 mm in length. The initial notch-depth ratio was approximately 0.5, and the span was fixed at 300 mm during the tests. Four strain gauges mounted along the ligament of the specimen were used to measure the FPZ size. Surprisingly, the FPZ size remains almost constant (around 20 mm) when the loading rate varies seven orders of magnitude. This is clearly different from NSC, in which the FPZ size actually decreased with loading rate.

Applying a Bayesian Approach to Identification of Orthotropic Elastic Constants from Full Field Displacement Measurements

A major challenge in the identification of material properties is handling different sources of uncertainty in the experiment and the modelling of the experiment for estimating the resulting uncertainty in the identified properties. Numerous improvements in identification methods have provided increasingly accurate estimates of various material properties. However, characterizing the uncertainty in the identified properties is still relatively crude. Different material properties obtained from a single test are not obtained with the same confidence. Typically the highest uncertainty is associated with respect to properties to which the experiment is the most insensitive. In addition, the uncertainty in different properties can be strongly correlated, so that obtaining only variance estimates may be misleading. A possible approach for handling the different sources of uncertainty and estimating the uncertainty in the identified properties is the Bayesian method. This method was introduced in the late 1970s in the context of identification [1] and has been applied since to different problems, notably identification of elastic constants from plate vibration experiments [2]-[4]. The applications of the method to these classical pointwise tests involved only a small number of measurements (typically ten natural frequencies in the previously cited vibration test) which facilitated the application of the Bayesian approach. For identifying elastic constants, full field strain or displacement measurements provide a high number of measured quantities (one measurement per image pixel) and hence a promise of smaller uncertainties in the properties. However, the high number of measurements represents also a major computational challenge in applying the Bayesian approach to full field measurements. To address this challenge we propose an approach based on the proper orthogonal decomposition (POD) of the full fields in order to drastically reduce their dimensionality. POD is based on projecting the full field images on a modal basis, constructed from sample simulations, and which can account for the variations of the full field as the elastic constants and other parameters of interest are varied. The fidelity of the decomposition depends on the number of basis vectors used. Typically even complex fields can be accurately represented with no more than a few dozen modes and for our problem we showed that only four or five modes are sufficient [5]. To further reduce the computational cost of the Bayesian approach we use response surface approximations of the POD coefficients of the fields. We show that 3rd degree polynomial response surface approximations provide a satisfying accuracy. The combination of POD decomposition and response surface methodology allows to bring down the computational time of the Bayesian identification to a few days. The proposed approach is applied to Moire interferometry full field displacement measurements from a traction experiment on a plate with a hole. The laminate with a layup of [45,- 45,0]s is made out of a Toray® T800/3631 graphite/epoxy prepreg. The measured displacement maps are provided in Figure 1. The mean values of the identified properties joint probability density function are in agreement with previous identifications carried out on the same material. Furthermore the probability density function also provides the coefficient of variation with which the properties are identified as well as the correlations between the various properties. We find that while the longitudinal Young's modulus is identified with good accuracy (low standard deviation), the Poisson's ration is identified with much higher uncertainty. Several of the properties are also found to be correlated. The identified uncertainty structure of the elastic constants (i.e. variance co-variance matrix) has potential benefits to reliability analyses, by allowing a more accurate description of the input uncertainty. An additional advantage of the Bayesian approach is that it provides a natural way (in the form of the prior probability density function) for accounting for prior information that may be available on the material properties thought. This is of great interest for reducing the uncertainty on properties that can only be determined with low confidence from the plate with a hole experiment, such as Poisson's ratio or transverse Young's modulus in our case.

3차원 미세형상 측정용 탄성힌지 기반 압전구동식 격자 스캐너

This paper proposes a grating scanner which is driven by a stack-type piezoelectric element. The mechanism of the grating scanner is based on flexure hinges. Using some constraints, the compliant mechanism is designed and then verified by Finite Element Analysis. The designed compliant mechanism is manufactured by wire electro-discharge machining, and then integrated with a stack-type piezoelectric element for actuation and a capacitance displacement sensor for measuring ultra-precision displacement. Experiments demonstrates the characteristics and the performances of the grating scanner using the terms of working range, resonance frequency, bandwidth and resolution. The grating scanner is applicable to a Moire interferometry for measuring 3-dimensional microscopic surface.

On the Thermal–Mechanical Behaviors of a Novel Nanowire-Based Anisotropic Conductive Film Technology

Extensive understanding and management of the thermal-mechanical characteristics of novel packaging designs during the bonding process are indispensable to the realization of the technologies. Thus, this paper attempts to explore the bonding process-induced thermal-mechanical behaviors of an advanced flip chip (FC) electronic packaging. FC packaging employs a novel anisotropic conductive film, which is a thin composite film composed of polymer matrix and thousands of millions of highly oriented, 1-D silver (Ag) nanowires on the scale of 200 nanometers in diameter. For carrying out the process simulation, a process-dependent finite element (FE) simulation methodology that integrates both thermal and nonlinear contact FE analyses and a special meshing scheme is applied. The material properties of the nanoscale Ag wires are first explored using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. By the characterized material properties of the Ag nanowires, the effective material properties of the composite film are derived through two theoretical approaches: 1) the rule-of-mixture (ROM) technique and 2) the proposed FE method-based approach. The predicted results by these two approaches are extensively compared with each other to examine the feasibility of using the widely used ROM technique for such cases. In addition, the validity of the proposed process-dependent FE simulation methodology is also confirmed through three experiments: 1) micro-thermocouple measurement of temperature; 2) Twyman-Green Moire interferometry measurement of out-of-plane deformations; and 3) portable engineering Moire interferometry measurement of in-plane deformations. Throughout the investigation, the effectiveness of the novel interconnect technology is demonstrated. Good agreement with the experiments is also obtained. It is found that the technology may ensure good electrical performance and structural integrity, not only at room temperature but even at elevated temperature, based on its substantial contact stresses but minor peeling stresses on the bonding line, together with a moderate, process-induced warpage on the substrate.

Hole-drilling method using grating rosette and Moiré interferometry

The hole-drilling method is one of the most well-known methods for measuring residual stresses. To identify unknown plane stresses in a specimen, a circular hole is first drilled in the infinite plate under plane stress, then the strains resulting from the hole drilling is measured. The strains may be acquired from interpreting the Moire signature around the hole. In crossed grating Moire interferometry, the horizontal and vertical displacement fields (u and v) can be obtained to determinate two strain fields and one shearing strain field. In this paper, by means of Moire interferometry and three directions grating (grating rosette) developed by the authors, three displacement fields (u, v and s) are obtained to acquire three strain fields. As a practical application, the hole–drilling method is adopted to measure the relief strains for aluminum and fiber reinforced composite. It is a step by step method; in each step a single laminate or equivalent depth is drilled to find some relationships between the drilling depth and the residual strains relieved in the fiber reinforced composite materials.

A Method to Eliminate Measurement Error Caused by Residual Strain of Grating in Moire Interferometry

Moire interferometry is a very sensitive optical method to measure the in-plane displacement of a solid specimen, and is useful to measure small deformation of solids. But, there often appears measurement error caused by the residual strain of the grating that is pasted on a specimen in Moire interferometry. The present paper applies Moire interferometry to the measurement of opening displacement of a notch in a plate specimen, and proposes a method to eliminate the error brought by the residual strain of the grating. The proposed method measures the change of the order of Moire interference fringes with varying the tensile force applied to the specimen, and obtain the residual displacement of the grating and the true opening displacement of the notch. The experimental results show that the opening displacement given by the proposed method is proportional to the square root of the distance from the notch tip. This fact says that the proposed method is successful in eliminating the measurement error caused by the residual strain of grating, and can measure the true COD without any phase-shifting methods.

S0301-1-4 低サイクル疲労を受ける切欠付オーステナイトステンレス鋼のき裂先端開口角解析(疲労特性に及ぼす各種因子の影響(1))

The crack tip opening angle (CTOA) is a viable ductile fracture criterion and could be used for elastic-plastic, crack propagation analysis without the constraint of LEFM. This paper reports on our investigation to correlate ΔCTOA with the crack propagation rate, da/dN, in stainless steel (SUS 316), single edged notch bend (SENB) specimens. The SENB specimens were cyclically loaded at various constant load amplitudes with a load ratio, R〜0.01. ΔCTOA at the initial phase of fatigue crack extension was measured by moire interferometry and inferred from a ΔCTOA versus ΔCMOD master curve, which was constructed through CMOD and crack profile measurements, during the latter phase of fatigue crack extension. The fatigue data was then used to construct a da/dN versus ΔCTOA relation, similar to Paris' law of LEFM, in the presence of small to large crack tip deformation and net section yielding.

Carrier fringe method of moiré interferometry for tiny strain measurements in micro-field

In this paper, we demonstrate a new optical method for tiny strain measurements based on the principle of carrier fringes of moire interferometry. A cross-line grating with frequency of 1200 lp/mm is replicated on the specimen surface, and the strain can be deduced from the changes in carrier fringes before and after the deformation of an object. Four coherent laser beams are used to obtain the carrier fringe patterns of field U and V. Both theoretical analysis and numerical simulation indicate that the ideal accuracy of strain can be controlled within a range of ±1μe. Case study of a plane extension experiment shows that the measurement accuracy of strain can be controlled within the range of ±10μe. The average strain values of every row of field U and every column of field V can be obtained by using this method, and approximated strain of every pixel in the whole-field can be further acquired, and thus it is possible to measure tiny strains occurred in a micro-field. The technology in this paper can provide comprehensive information for analyzing related mechanical content in the field of MEMS.

Automatic Full Strain Field Moiré Interferometry Measurement with Nano-scale Resolution

Moire Interferometry (MI) theoretically can provide real-time full strain field measurements in dynamic environment. So it’s extensively used in reliability analysis of electronic packaging. Due to the nature of specimen preparations procedure, the optical noise is usually too strong so that an accurate phase-based information processing is not possible. In this paper, a 164 nm/pixel spatial resolution Moire Interferometer with automated full strain field calculation is proposed. Provided by two-level zooming system, the high spatial resolution increase the signal intensity and eliminate some optical noise which allows accurate full strain field map generated automatically by the combination of phase shifting technique and continuous wavelet transform (CWT). Furthermore, the calculation procedure of CWT proposed here does not require unwrapping and differentiation, which avoid the possible numerical noise introduced in these two steps. In the proposed system, pixel by pixel in-plane strain tensors will be calculate from the intensity map of interferograms using phase-based method. The resulting strain tensor can be used to model constitutive relationship or compare with finite element analysis results. A thermal experiment on BGA packaging is used to demonstrate the advantages of the proposed new design.

Moiré interferometry measurements of composite laminate repair behavior: Influence of grating thickness on interlaminar response

Bonded scarf-lap and step-lap specimens representative of fully repaired composites were fabricated from two quasi-isotropic sixteen ply panels made from IM6/3501-6 material. The full-field optical displacement measuring technique, moire interferometry, was used to gather detailed information about the distribution of interlaminar strain on the edge of these specimens. Highly detailed 3D numerical models were constructed for both specimen geometries and results obtained. Instead of modeling idealized bondline geometries, the geometries were obtained through digitization of micrographs of the actual test specimens. As a further enhancement on a second set of models, a thin resin layer representing the moire interferometry diffraction grating was added to each model. Comparisons between the model and experimental results showed that a localized effect over the bondline was more accurately represented when the grating layer was modeled. Surprisingly, it was found that in regions away from the bondline, the through-thickness interlaminar normal strain was found to be amplified by the presence of the modeled grating. A series of parametric models were conducted on a laminated composite while varying grating thickness and modulus to further examine this phenomenon. A mechanism for the strain amplification is proposed.

Effect of Hygrothermal Aging on Interfacial Reliability of Silicon/Underfill/FR-4 Assembly

The reliability issues have been converted to the underfill adjacent interfaces since the introduction of the underfill to flip chip package in 1990's. Both thermal cycling and hygrothermal conditioning severely attack the interfaces to de- laminate. The moisture migrating into the underfill decreases the adhesion strength, swells to deform the assembly, and weakens the mechanical and thermal properties of the material. In this study, interfacial reliability of a silicon/underfill/FR-4 assembly exposed at 85degC/85%RH was studied using moire interferometry and micro-digital image speckle correlation (mu-DiSC) techniques. A thermal aging study was simultaneously performed to understand the long-term reliability of the assembly. The results showed that the thermal aging relieved the stresses induced by hygrothermal swelling mismatch between dissimilar materials involved, whereas increased the strains induced by hygrothermal swelling. It indicated the time effect is not negligible when the assembly is subjected to the moisture conditioning, otherwise, the deformation induced by the swelling could be overestimated. The mu-DiSC technique was applied to measure the critical interfacial fracture toughness of the silicon/underfill interface. The results showed that the moisture could significantly reduce the interfacial strength due to the break of hydrogen bonding. By combining the moire and mu-DiSC results, it was concluded that the hygrothermal loading could increase the possibility of interfacial delamination in a flip chip package. Finally, the morphologies of the fractured surface were studied with the aid of scanning electron microscope. Remarkable changes of the failure mode were observed.

A Study on the Thermal Fatigue Behavior of Solder Joints Under Power Cycling Conditions

Failure mechanisms exposed by environmental accelerating testing methods such as thermal cycling or thermal shock test, may differ from those at service operating conditions. While the device is heated up or cooled down evenly on its external surface during environmental testing, real operating powered devices experience temperature gradients caused by internal local heating, components' different heat dissipation capability, and ambient temperature variation, etc. In this study, a power cycling technique is introduced to better approximate the field operating conditions so as to activate the field failure modes. Power cycling thermal fatigue test is performed with different ball grid array solder joints, that is, lead contained [Sn/37 Pb (SP)] and lead free [Sn/4.0Ag/0.5 Cu (SAC)], and the result is compared. In order to account for the thermal fatigue life behavior discrepancy for different solder joint composition, real time Moire interferometry is applied to measure the global/local thermo-mechanical behavior during power cycling excursion. Effective damage parameter, the total average shear strain, is extracted from the experiment and applied to account for the difference in fatigue life result of two different solders. In addition, amount of experimentally measured total average shear strain is mutually verified with finite element method analysis. It is clear that total average shear strain of a solder joint can be an effective damage parameter to predict thermo-mechanical fatigue life. A physical mechanism in terms of thermal material property of solder joints' is proposed to offer some thoughts to abnormal shear strain behavior that leads to discrepancies in fatigue life of two solders. An importance of power cycling testing method is emphasized for certain package designs.

마이크로 무아레 간섭계를 이용한 초정밀 변형 측정

Moire interferometry is an optical method, providing whole field contour maps of in-plane displacements with high resolution. The demand for enhanced sensitivity in displacement measurements leads to the technique of microscopic moire interferometry. The method is an extension of the moire interferometry, and employs an optical microscope for the required spatial resolution. In this paper, the sensitivity of moire interferometry is enhanced by an order of magnitude using an immersion interferometry and the optical/digital fringe multiplication(O/DFM) method. In fringe patterns, the contour interval represents the displacement of 52 ㎚ per fringe order. In order to estimate the reliability and the applicability of the optical system implemented, the measurements of rigid body displacements of grating mold and the coefficient of thermal expansion(CTE) for an aluminium block are performed. The system developed is applied to the measurement of thermal deformation in a flip chip plastic ball grid array package.

SIMULTANEOUS ON-LINE MEASUREMENT OF ORTHOGONAL DISPLACEMENT FIELDS BY MOIRÉ INTERFEROMETRY

A modified four-beam optical arrangement for moire interferometry provides simultaneous determination of the in-plane U and V displacement fields, and is suitable for high-speed recordings.

Moiré Interferometry for Damage Analysis of Composites

This paper briefly reviews the techniques of moire interferometry as they are practiced in the author's laboratory and demonstrates their potential for revealing U and V displacement fields for analysis of damage in composites. The method is treated more completely in Ref. 1 and in the references cited there.

Using Carrier Fringes to Study the High Temperature Deformation Behavior of a BGA Package Under Extended Dwell Times

There is a compelling need to experimentally understand solder joint deformation behavior at high temperatures over an extended period of time. Accordingly, the deformation behavior of solder joints in a Ceramic Ball Grid Array (CBGA) package mounted on an organic FR4 board under extended dwell time at a high temperature has been studied using laser moire interferometry. The warpage and the in-plane horizontal deformation of the ceramic substrate and the organic board as a function of time were determined. The variation of the normal strains and shear strains in the solder joints with time were also investigated. It was found that increased sensitivity was necessary to accurately determine the strains in the small sized solder joints. A new method utilizing carrier fringes to increase the sensitivity of the moire interferometry system is proposed and has been used to determine the strains in the small sized solder joints. Increased sensitivity can be obtained merely by changing the incident angle of the laser light on the surface of the specimen, thereby making it unnecessary to use expensive phase shifting apparatus with the traditional laser moire system.

Health Monitoring for Electronic Package Using a Simple Moire Interferometry

Like a diagnosis of human body, it is important to monitor conditions of electronic packages in use. Even if electronic packages are sound in the beginning, thermal cycles during operations can produce fatigue cracks that lead to the system failure eventually. If we know the crack length in the package in real-time, a fatal damage can be prevented before the system failure. Currently, there are no simple methods for real-time monitoring of electronic packages in use. In this research, we propose a non-destructive monitoring method that detects the crack length in electronic packages. The electronic package in use is heated continuously by itself. When the crack at a weak site of the electronic package occurs, thermal deformation on the chip side is changed. Therefore, we can measure these micro deformations by using Moire interferometry and find out the crack length. The proposed monitoring method is applied to ACF type package specimens. Experimental results show that the crack length of the electronic package affects the thermal deformation of the chip. If we have data of thermal strain by a specific crack length, we can monitor the crack length in real-time. Since the failure of a super-computer or network-server system affect the tremendous damage, we must know the health conditions of electronic packages in real-time. This research focuses the health monitoring of the electronic package of these system.

Full-Field Stress Determination Around Circular Discontinuity in a Tensile-Loaded Plate using x-displacements Only

The significant effects of stress raisers demand well-defined evaluation techniques to accurately determine the stress along the geometric boundary. A simple and accurate method for the determination of stress concentration around circular geometric discontinuity in a tensile-loaded plate is illustrated. The method is based on the least-squares technique, mapping functions, and a complex power series representation (Laurent series) of the stress functions for the calculation of tangential stress around the hole. Traction-free conditions were satisfied at the geometric discontinuity using conformal mapping and analytic continuation. In this study, we use only a relatively small amount of x-component displacement data of points away from the discontinuity of concern with their respective coordinates. Having this information we can easily obtain full-field stresses at the edge of the geometric discontinuity. Excellent results were obtained when the number of terms of the power series expansions, m=1. The maximum stress concentration calculation results using the present method and FEM using ANSYS agree well by less than one per cent difference. Experimental advantage of the method underscores the use of relatively small amount of data which are conveniently determined being away from the edge. Moreover, the small amount of measured input data needed affords the approach suitable for applications such as the multi-parameter concept used to obtain stress intensity factors from measured data. The use of laser speckle interferometry and moire interferometry are also potential future related fields since the optical system for one-directional measurement is much simple.