Modern Food Environment Research Articles

The impact of a protein‐rich breakfast on food cravings and reward in overweight/obese ‘breakfast skipping’ adolescent girls

PurposeTo assess whether the addition of a high‐protein (HP) or normal‐protein (NP) breakfast alters food cravings and signals controlling food reward in breakfast skipping (BS) girls.MethodsUsing a randomized crossover design, 20 BS girls (age 19±1y; BMI 28.6±0.7kg/m2) where acclimated to each breakfast pattern for 6 days. On day 7, a 4‐h testing day was completed including the consumption of breakfast followed by repeated assessments of food cravings and blood sampling for plasma concentrations of the dopamine metabolite, homovanilic acid (HVA).ResultsBreakfast reduced sweet and savory cravings vs. BS (all, p<0.05). Although no differences in sweet cravings were observed between breakfast meals, HP lead to greater reduction in savory cravings vs. NP (p<0.05). Plasma HVA concentrations were greater following both breakfast meals vs. BS (both, p<0.05), with HP exhibiting sustained increases prior to lunch vs. NP (p=0.09). HVA concentrations were correlated with perceived fullness, breakfast palatability, and protein content at breakfast.ConclusionThese data suggest that the daily addition of a protein‐rich breakfast, containing 35g of protein, alters signals associated with food motivation and reward, and might be a beneficial strategy to combat the modern food environment in young people.Grant Funding Source: The Beef Checkoff; Egg Nutrition Center; Margaret Flynn

Impulsivity, eating behaviour and performance on a delay discounting task

Impulsivity is related to a number of addictive behaviours, including drug and alcohol use. Individual differences in impulsivity may explain why some people are able to stick to long-term health goals whilst others are susceptible to temptation. In the modern food environment with an abundance of widely available tempting foods the ability to self-regulate is critical for successful control of eating behaviour. In this study, the relationship between the ability to delay gratification and eating behaviour is explored using a delay-discounting task. This task has been shown to demonstrate the extent to which individuals can inhibit immediate reward in pursuit of more adaptive delayed goals. Male and female participants were tested on a monetary delay-discounting task and a trail making task (measure of executive function) and completed a number of self-report measures of eating behaviour (Power of Food Scale, Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire, Yale Food Addiction Scale) and impulsivity (BIS-11). Height, weight and dieting history were also recorded to get an accurate measure of BMI and current dieting status. Based on previous findings reported by Applehans et al. (2011; Obesity, 19, 2175–2182) we suggest that impulsivity and performance on the delay discounting task will predict eating style and we will explore the relationship between the ability to delay gratification and BMI. The results will be discussed in the context of the role of top-down processes in the cognitive control of eating.

The neurobiology of food intake in an obesogenic environment.

The objective of this non-systematic review of the literature is to highlight some of the neural systems and pathways that are affected by the various intake-promoting aspects of the modern food environment and explore potential modes of interaction between core systems such as hypothalamus and brainstem primarily receptive to internal signals of fuel availability and forebrain areas such as the cortex, amygdala and meso-corticolimbic dopamine system, primarily processing external signals. The modern lifestyle with its drastic changes in the way we eat and move puts pressure on the homoeostatic system responsible for the regulation of body weight, which has led to an increase in overweight and obesity. The power of food cues targeting susceptible emotions and cognitive brain functions, particularly of children and adolescents, is increasingly exploited by modern neuromarketing tools. Increased intake of energy-dense foods high in fat and sugar is not only adding more energy, but may also corrupt neural functions of brain systems involved in nutrient sensing as well as in hedonic, motivational and cognitive processing. It is concluded that only long-term prospective studies in human subjects and animal models with the capacity to demonstrate sustained over-eating and development of obesity are necessary to identify the critical environmental factors as well as the underlying neural systems involved. Insights from these studies and from modern neuromarketing research should be increasingly used to promote consumption of healthy foods.

Learning and Memory Processes and Their Role in Eating: Implications for Limiting Food Intake in Overeaters

Understanding the role of psychological factors involved in overeating is critical if we are to develop effective interventions to curb the rise of obesity that is associated with the modern food environment. Here we review recent experimental research on the role of cognitive processes such as learning and memory in eating behavior. From habituation to learning to associate the rewarding consequences of ingestion with food cues, we contemplate how learning about food has been influenced by the changing food environment. We also consider how learning and memory processes interact with satiety processes and how higher-level cognitive systems modulate responses to food cues. Finally, what we remember about eating episodes affects later eating. Encoding information about meals and snacks allows us to take into account recent energy intake and food enjoyment during later eating events. We suggest that interventions that encourage attentive eating might prove fruitful in helping appetite control.

The Addiction Potential of Hyperpalatable Foods

Scientific interest in "food addiction" continues to grow due both to neurobiological and behavioral similarities between substance dependence and excessive food consumption. An important next step is to examine the addictive potential of highly processed foods. In this paper, we explore addiction-related changes in the modern food environment (e.g., increased potency, elevated speed of absorption), examine the historical and modern understanding of addictive substances as applied to hyperpalatable foods, and outline shared factors that increase the public health costs of both addictive drugs and certain foods.

Evolution, obesity, and why children so often choose the unhealthy eating option

In recent decades obesity has become an increasing concern for governments and health organisations around the world. Changes in diet in modern conditions have led to our food environment being labelled "toxic" and "obesogenic", and are portrayed in marked contrast to the types of food environment in which humans evolved and are adapted to biologically. In this article I question whether the modern food environment is genuinely so different from those that humans evolved in, and whether domesticated animals, like humans, tend to become obese in conditions where food is plentiful. I continue by offering a model of eating behaviour based on the marginal value theorem. The model implies that many parents and public policy unwittingly encourage unhealthy diets by controlling or over-regulating children's diet: although it may feel counterintuitive to respond to the risk of obesity by allowing individuals to make choices rather than restricting their choices, a more relaxed and less regulated approach to food intake should allow appropriate modulation of food intake in conditions where food is plentiful.

Genetic and environmental determinants of children's food preferences

Omnivores have the advantage of a variety of food options but face a challenge in identifying foods that are safe to eat. Not surprisingly, therefore, children show a relative aversion to new foods (neophobia) and a relative preference for familiar, bland, sweet foods. While this may in the past have promoted survival, in the modern food environment it could have an adverse effect on dietary quality. This review examines the evidence for genetic and environmental factors underlying individual differences in children's food preferences and neophobia. Twin studies indicate that neophobia is a strongly heritable characteristic, while specific food preferences show some genetic influence and are also influenced by the family environment. The advantage of the malleability of human food preferences is that dislike of a food can be reduced or even reversed by a combination of modelling and taste exposure. The need for effective guidance for parents who may be seeking to improve the range or nutritional value of foods accepted by their children is highlighted.

Eating behaviour and obesity

Eating behaviour and obesity