Modem Era Research Articles

The Protected Brush Catheter and Bacterial Pneumonia

It seems incredulous in this modem era of bacteriology, immunologic testing and super computerized technology that an easy diagnostic test for bacterial pneumonia has yet to be developed. Counterimmunoelectrophoresis, transtracheal aspiration (TTA), fiberoptic bronchoscopy, quantitative bacteriology, lung punctures, and yes, even the old-fashioned Cram stain of expectorated sputum are but a few of the possible techniques available to the clinician to aid in making a specific etiologic diagnosis of pneumonia.

Doubts about the uselessness of men and the meaning of the civilizing process

The discussion between de Swaan and Alt bears on but conflates two issues of considerable import. One, the agoraphobia problematic, has importance because it touches on that intimate savagery now blandly described as "the relations between the sexes". The second is the "civilizing process," a term of uncertain irony, with which Norbert Elias characterizes the emergence of our modem era. While connected, the two are scarcely more identical than a cat and dog who become blurred in battle. The civilizing process is, we might say with only a touch of indelicacy, Norbert Elias's somewhat belated entry into the Dijon contest that Rousseau won when, against the common sense of his time and the optimism of its philosophes, Rousseau churlishly insisted that modern progress was not of one piece and that the new burgeoning of the sciences and arts did not necessarily entail a civilizing cultivation of human manners and relationships. Marx was later to submit a convergent report in the idiom of political economy, observing that the advance of technology was accompanied by a growing reserve army of the unemployed and a spreading alienation.

The Theory of the Legal State

In this article, which has not been published before, the late Prof. du Plessis lays bare the philosophical roots of the liberal-democratic state, or the legal state, as he preferred to call it. After a recapitulative version of the theory of the legal state, het indicates the origin of this form in Greek philosophy and in Medieval thought. The stress, however, is on the Modem Era, in which he distinuishes two main periods in the development of the theory of the legal state:the jusnaturalistic period and thepositivistic or formal period.He argues that positivism has destroyed the original ideal o f individual freedom in facts by regarding justice as a purely formal matter susceptible to any content. All guarantees for individual freedom which rested on a universal normative system fe ll away. The state defines its own competence and limits itself to legal forms in all its activities. The legal state thus merely becomes the state, any state as determined by fixed rules o f its own making to which it binds itselfin all its functioning. Law sinks to a mere form in which the juristic personality of the state manifests its supremacy, and from this there is only one step to the concept that the state is identical with law, so that any state necessarily is a legal state, and any state action which is formally correct, is legal. The article concludes with a brief representation o f the author’s own political and legal vision.

Heidegger: Il nulla e la fondazione della storicita (review)

372 HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY Vincenzo Vitiello. Heidegger: II nulla e la fondazione della storicita. Dalla Uberwindung der Metaphysik alla Daseinsanalyse. Urbino: Argalia Editore, 1976. Pp. 495. In a few introductory pages Vitiello explains his approach to Heidegger's philosophy. Nothingness , he asserts, is the abyss of Being from which its "presence" emerges always anew in the "world" of Dasein. Therefore, nothingness rather than Being is the ground of historicity. Since Being and Time is, in the author's opinion, the result of Heidegger's overcoming metaphysics, the meaning of the latter must be dealt with first. Vitiello begins his discussion with the modem age of science and technology, the most powerful expression of metaphysical thinking. Heidegger has coined the term Ge-stell to denote the way man looks at things in a "world" dominated by technology. Dasein (man) measures and calculates objects in order to make use of them as he pleases. But things are not present without the presence of Being; that is, Being reveals beings and things. The modem era is characterized by the fact that Dasein forgets Being, and Being has withdrawn, The forgetfulness of Being, however, has a long history beginning with Plato and leading to Nietzsche. The metaphysical thinkers comprehend Being as a being, an ideal absolute or a highest being--God. Vitiello gives a good account of the metaphysical tradition. His presentation of Heidegger's interpretation of Nietzscbe seems to this reviewer most successful. He points to the connection between the Will to Power, the Eternal Recurrence, and the essence of the technological world. In the epoch of the machine Nietzsche's Will to Power is reflected in man's will to dominate nature; the Eternal Recurrence "presences" things in accord with the will that acts upon them. Heidegger's criticism of the metaphysical tradition, however, is not the simple rejection it may appear to be. It was precisely the forgetfulness of Being by the great thinkers of the past that showed Heidegger a new path to Being. In its withdrawal Being has revealed itself. The double movement of Being as unconcealment and withdrawal circumscribes the "world" of Dasein. It is a "world" that defines the epochal events of Being. Because Being conceals as it reveals itself, the truth of any epoch is untruth (lrre) at the same time. This insight, it seems to me, is the focal point of Vitiello's argumentation. It helps him, for example, to give the ontological difference, a key concept for Heidegger, a deeper explanation and meaning. Instead of being satisfied with interpreting the ontological difference in terms of the event (Ereignis), the revealing-concealing of Being, Vitiello gropes more deeply. He takes into account Heidegger's claim to the effect that Being and Nothingness are the same and applies it to the ontological difference. Being as a whole is the abyss, the secret or nothingness that is the other to all that is. When Being reveals itself it negates, as it were, its own nothingness: "A new epoch, a new 'world' . . . are continuously negated," the author asserts, "in the negation of Being through nothingness and of nothingness through Being" (p. 277). From this it follows that the ontological difference names the differing, to wit, how nothingness is transformed within Being. The author distinguishes between "the not of the entity which defines Being from the not of the ontological difference which is the not within nothingness and Being" (p. 244). This reviewer considers the author's ability to make a convincing case for relating the ontological difference to nothingness as one of the most exciting results of his book. It is interesting to note that a chapter on Kant does not appear as part of the metaphysical tradition, but it is inserted in his long analysis of Being and Time. Vitiello's reason is that Heidegger gave a lecture course on Kant in Marburg in 1925-26 at a time when he was working on Being and Time. His interpretation of Kant was not unrelated to some major thoughts he developed in Being and Time. Heidegger focused his attention on Kant's concept of imagination, which played a central role in the first edition of the Critique of...

A propos de la Nouvelle Droite

During the past ten years, a culturalistic rightist thought, which is primarily inspired by Nietzsche, has developed in France. This "Nouvelle Droite", rep- resented especially by Alain de Benoist, is concerned not only with politics but with ail areas of culture. This article limits itself only to the little systematized but nevertheless cohérent religious aspect of this throught. While de Benoist proclaims the necessity offaith and mysticism, he fïnds fault with Judeo-Christianity . He reproaches Christianity its origin and spirit, foreign to the European civitization ; its monotheism, source of totalitarism, reductionism, egalitarianism, and universalism ; its insistance on sin and its messianic idea of salvation through God ; and its linear vision ofhistory. Thèse reproaches, which challenge the cultural value of Christianity as a whole and with regard to many particular éléments, are the contrary ofcurrent objections to Christianity : for example ; while the left accuses the Church ofnot observing the Gospel, the "Nouvelle Droite" objects that it observes this "cultural poison" much too much ; or, while the left accuses the Church of being elitist, the "Nouvelle Droite" accuses her of preaching an egalitarianism which perverts the culture. Mr. de Benoist prefers polytheism to monotheism, without being aware that the former is at work since the modem era through the sacralisation of an abstract predicate which is supposed to express the essence of mon. If, for example, the human being is defined only by its social character, the risk is run ofcreating a deity Society ; the same may be said if mon is defined only by his cultural aspect. Modem polytheism does not need to be invented, and it isfull of redoubtable effects. This current of thought must be carefully observed,for in the présent confusion of the various leftist groups it is capable of attracting a numerous following.

Scurvy and the Ventilation of Ships in the Royal Navy: Samuel Sutton's Contribution

THE PROBLEM OF THE DISEASE KNOWN AS SCURVY aboard sailing vessels of the eighteenth century was one of the most common and difficult to solve. This affliction took a high toll of lives each year. Dr. Richard Mead (1673-1754), a London physician of the early part of the eighteenth century, hoped to alleviate this problem through his support of Samuel Sutton. Sutton had invented a device for artificially ventilating ships which, it was believed, would remove a principal cause of this disease-the foul and noxious air below decks. This paper deals with Sutton's efforts to get his invention adopted by the Royal Navy and with Mead's part in it. Scurvy acquired aboard ship resulted from the voyages that were first undertaken in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries when men were beginning to traverse the oceans seeking new ways to the East. Problems arose connected with the health of seamen and became more serious the longer men were away from land-problems connected with crowding, air supply, water supply, food, and the care of the sick and injured under shipboard conditions.' So-called sea diseases such as typhus or ship fever became particularly troublesome in these years. Ships that went out into the open seas for long periods of time were virtual floating coffins until means of prevention and cures could be found. Among the sea diseases of the early modem era scurvy was a principal killer. This disease, notes Alfred F. Hess, destroyed more

Treatment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis

ith the evolution of effective chemotherapeutic regimens in the past 30 years, the treatment of tuberculosis has changed from inpatient management with generally poor results to outpatient onented therapy with almost uniform success.' The modem era in treatment began in 1946 with the reports of success of streptomycin (SM) and paraarninosalicylic acid (PAS) in treating the disea~e.~.~ When isoniazid (INH) became available in 1952 it became possible with multiple drug therapy to bring most cases into a state of clinical and bacteriologic remission within a matter of month^.^ However, despite the success of drug therapy, patients were still kept confined for many months in tuberculosis sanitoria, with resulting unnecessary costs and social

The fate of foreign compounds in man and animals.

Abstract

Differential identification of mycobacteria. I. Tests on catalase activity.

In I957 Sneath (I) proposed the application of computer technology to the systematic classification of bacteria. Basically, this avoids the bias so common in present methods of bacterial nomenclature by assigning equal weight to all taxonomic features to be used in the classification scheme. Generally, a large group of organisms is subjected to examination for the presence or absence of a large number (60 to IOO) of features or characters. After subjecting each of the cultures to every test, the siinilarity between strains is determined mathematically as outlined by Sneath (1). Upon completion of such an impartial classification it might then be possible to weigh certain features more heavily as always, or almost always, being positive for a given group of organisms. This Adansonian approach has two advantages: (1) if properly performed it should provide an unbiased grouping of organisms based upon their overall similarity in a variety of tests; (2) once these groupings are realized a certain few features may stand out as being closely correlated with a given group, and hence of value to the diagnostic bacteriologist. The family Mycobacteriaceae is in great need of just such an unbiased method of classification. Since the isolation of the 11yellow bacillus (2) ushered in the modem era of atypical acid-fast bacilli in 1952, mycobacterial taxonomists have been enshrouded with the 11mycobacterial mystique (3). In his recent editorial, Wayne (3) reiter-

A review : James W. Kuhn, Bargaining in Grievance Settlement: The Power of Industrial Work Groups

The modem era of industrial conflict began in the late 1930's and early 1940's with the signing of collective agreements by the major industrial giants in basic manufacturing industries such as steel, auto, and rubber. National unions growing in strength and the already powerful industrial managements signed agreements, usually on a yearto-year basis. But much open conflict ensued, nevertheless, during the life of these agreements as each major problem which arose in the plant became a trial of strength between the group of workers affected, or the union, and the management involved. With December 7, 1941, the advent of World War II, the need for putting a cap on industrial strife was obvious. Organized labor profferred a no strike pledge; management was encouraged by the War Labor Board to set up grievance procedures ending in final and binding arbitration in many of the collective agreements. The precedentsetting breakthrough for this had come earlier when General Motors Corporation agreed to such an arrangement during contract negotiations with the UAW in 1940. Some students of industrial relations heralded this as a new era of industrial

REVIEWS*

Book reviewed in this article: Towards a More General Theory of Vdw. E. H. Chamberlin. Origins of Ownership. A Brief History of Land Ownership and Tenure from Earliest Times to the Modem Era. By D. R. Denman. Can we solve the Farm Problem: An Analysis of Federal Aid to Agriculture. By M. R. Benedict. The Agricultural Commodity Programs: Two Decades of Experience. By M. R. Benedict and 0. C. Stine. Agricultural Adjustment Problems is a Growing Economy. Edited by E. 0. Heady, H. G. Diesslin, H. R. Jensen, G. L. Johnson. Economic Backwardness and Economic Growth. By H. Leibenstein. The Niger Agricultwal Project. By K. D. S. Baldwin.Maahlouden Samakirja‐Lantbrukets Ordbok‐Landwirtschaftliclzes Wöterbuch‐Agricultural Dictionary. By Liisa Mali.

United States Marine Corps Slang

S INCE THE END of the Second World War, more and more attention has been given by students of American English to the slang vocabularies of our Armed Forces. Just as the two major conflicts of the twentieth century have wrought a significant change in man's concept of warfare, making it apparent that war in the modem era is no longer confined simply to actual combatant forces but now encompasses every aspect of civilian life as well, so they have demonstrated a similarly pervasive effect on living language. The current (sixth) edition of the Webster Collegiate Dictionary contains a section devoted to new words, a large number of which either have stemmed directly from the Second World War or else are words whose meanings have broadened as a result of that war. Such terms as alligator, axis, blitzkrieg, flak, Gestapo, gremlin, jeep, and so on, are now part of the standard written and spoken language, and the process of assimilation is a continual one. Eric Partridge asserts that 'war is a powerful excitant, perhaps the most rapidly effectual excitant, of language. It quickens and enlivens, enriches and invigorates language...' The very conditions of service life (its manner, equipment, companionship, and often strange lands and customs) lead inevitably to 'a rejuvenation of language-to vividness-to picturesqueness-to vigour; language becomes youthful, energetic, adventurous.' At the time of this writing, although there have been numerous studies of Army and Navy 'slanguage,' and some of that of the Air Force, including the A.V.G. 'Flying Tigers,' relatively little investigation has been made of U.S. Marine Corps slang. In 1944 Park Kendall's Dictionary of Service Slang was published, with a separate section allotted to Marine Corps lingo; aside from this brief and somewhat lighthearted coverage no extended work has been done in an area that is particularly rich. This study is based on notes and observations made during a tour of duty that coincided with the Korean conflict, and that included contact with marines in the southern part of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Mediterranean area. It does not pretend to be comprehensive or to explore all possible meanings and interpretations. During the past ten years, military personnel of the United States have been stationed in practically every corner of the globe, with the result that the slang lingo they speak often contains localisms peculiar to the specific area. (Marines stationed at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, for

The Argument of the Vision of Piers Plowman

The fourteenth century was for England a period of storm and stress. The Saxon genius does not achieve its conqueste lightly; it does not march to victory with furled flags or muffled drums; it is profoundly conscious of its own effort and the object to be realized. True, it often attains more than it hopes or even knows; but it attains the larger result through the accomplishment of the immediate purpose. The internai struggles are those that cost, with nations as with men; and it is no small part of the greatness of England that she has been able to see and strong to resist those dangers whieh, rising from within, have threatened to overthrow that stability which outward foes have in vain assailed. In that century which marked the close of the middle ages and the beginning of the modem era, England was busy taking cities and ruling her own spirit, and only the wise knew which was the better.