Water Mobility Research Articles

Sucrose substitution in cake systems is not a piece of cake

Successful sucrose replacement in cake systems requires thorough understanding of its functionality. Time-domain 1H NMR showed that water in the viscous aqueous phase isolated from cake batter by ultracentrifugation [i.e. the batter liquor (BL)] exhibits low mobility by its low T2 relaxation time (T2,D RT). This is due to its interactions with sucrose or sucrose replacers. The T2,D RT itself is positively related with the effective volumetric hydrogen bond density of sucrose or sucrose replacers. Sucrose additionally co-determines the quantity and viscosity of cake BL and thereby how much air the batter contains at the end of mixing. Like sucrose, maltitol and oligofructose provide adequate volumes of BL with low water mobility and thus sufficient air in the batter, while the rather insoluble mannitol and inulin do not. Differential scanning calorimetry and rapid viscosity analysis revealed, however, that, in contrast to sucrose and maltitol, oligofructose fails to provide appropriate timings of starch gelatinisation and protein denaturation, resulting in poor cake texture. The shortcomings of mannitol and oligofructose in terms of respectively ensuring appropriate gas content in batter and biopolymer transitions during baking can be overcome by using mixtures thereof. This work shows that successful sucrose substitutes or substitute mixtures must provide sufficient BL with low water mobility and ensure appropriate timings of starch and protein biopolymer transitions during baking.

Dual regulations on texture and water mobility of shrimp surimi gel with sustained-release epigallocatechin-3-gallate in γ-cyclodextrin metal organic frameworks: Insights into functionality and mechanisms

Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) could demonstrate crosslinking effects on myofibrillar proteins, yet its proneness to self-aggregation could bring excessive crosslinking and water loss within gels, hindering its application as an additive during thermal gelation process. Here, encapsulation with the γ-cyclodextrin metal organic framework (γ-CD-MOF) before the use of EGCG was found to play a dual role: alleviating over-crosslinking of proteins and elevating water retention within gels. Results showed that EGCG got a sustainable release throughout the thermal process due to the gradual fracture of O-K coordinate bounds and structural collapse of γ-CD-MOF. Mechanism insights revealed that the use of EGCG loaded γ-CD-MOF (EGCG@γ-CD-MOF) could regulate formation efficiency on disulfide bounds and promote protonation transition of the amino groups in proteins. Moreover, EGCG@γ-CD-MOF brought a higher retention of phenols within gels through preventing oxidative transformation of phenols towards quinones, which were verified to display a higher affinity towards myosin via molecular calculations.

Dynamic behavior of zein-gluten interaction during extruded noodle processing

The impact of adding zein on the gluten network during extruded noodle processing and the quality of the noodles by extrusion-cooking were investigated. These changes were studied by size exclusion-high performance liquid chromatography (SE-HPLC), free sulfhydryl (SH) measurement, non-covalent interactions, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), particle size analysis, confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Zein reduced the protein aggregation, resulting in a higher free sulfhydryl content and increased hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions during noodle processing. Moreover, Zein reduced the relative content of β-sheets by 4.54% and 7.48% at the extrusion and cooking stages, respectively. Zein decreased the particle size during extrusion but increased it during cooking. Zein improved the compactness and strength of noodle microstructure during cooking, exhibited higher hardness and impeded water mobility compared to extruded noodles made only with wheat flour (WF). The extruded noodles containing zein showed a significant increase of 26.10% and 61.11% in tensile strength and distance, respectively. Zein did not cause significant changes in the cooking loss and water absorption in the extruded noodles. Research on the impact of zein on protein during the processing of extruded noodles could provide a dependable approach and valuable mechanistic insights for improving the quality of extruded noodles.

Regulate structure and properties of κ-carrageenan/konjac glucomannan composite hydrogel by filling effects of Quillaja saponin-stabilized solid lipid nanostructure

κ-Carrageenan/konjac glucomannan (κ-CA/KGM) composite hydrogels often fail to meet industrial requirements due to their low gel strength and poor mechanical properties, while solid lipid nanoparticles are potential materials to address this challenge due to their good biocompatibility. In the study, we propose using Quillaja saponin-stabilized solid lipid nanoparticle (QSLN) as nanofillers to enhance properties of κ-carrageenan/konjac glucan (κ-CA/KGM) composite hydrogels, and with emphasis on the effect of QSLN filling concentration on the structure and properties of composite hydrogels and the possible mechanisms were investigated. The best performance of QSLN-filled composite hydrogels was achieved at the QSLN concentration of 2.4 %. QSLN was uniformly distributed in the hydrogel matrix and formed electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonding interactions with the matrix at an appropriate filling level, which enhanced the textural and rheological properties of the hydrogel greatly. In addition, the results of low-field NMR experiments showed that the filling of QSLN reduced the water mobility by enhancing the entanglement of polymer chains in the hydrogel matrix, which improved the freeze-thaw stability and regulated the swelling and deswelling behavior of the composite hydrogel. However, with the increasing of QSLN filling concentration, the above improvements were weakened by the depletion of van der Waals interactions due to the large amount of QSLN aggregation and the weakening of electrostatic interaction. In turn, the hydrogel was found to modulate the crystalline behavior of QSLN by X-ray diffraction and differential scanning calorimeter monitoring. Overall, the optimal synergistic effect between structure and properties could be achieved when the QSLN filling concentration was 2.4 %. These results provide a basis for the development of products that require excellent gel properties and structure.

Effect of silica fume on rheology of slag-fly ash-silica fume-based geopolymer pastes with different activators

This study examined the effect of silica fume contents on the rheological behavior of slag-fly ash-silica fume-based geopolymer pastes by packing density measurement, low-field NMR, zeta potential, dynamic light scattering and FTIR analyses. Incorporating silica fume into sodium hydroxide (SH)-activated geopolymer pastes resulted in the decrease of packing density and the increases of yield stress, plastic viscosity and hysteresis loop curve area. The contrary results were found in the pastes activated by sodium silicate (SS). The water states of geopolymer pastes were influenced by SiO2/Na2O ratio of activator and silica fume dosage. The mobile water content in the sample increased as the silica fume dosage increased, regardless of the SiO2/Na2O ratio of activator. The particle size of the silica species in the activator and interstitial fluids is close to that of silica fume. The incorporation of silica fume resulted in the variation in the silicate structural characteristics of the interstitial fluids. The influence of silica fume on the rheological behaviors of geopolymer systems is strongly governed by the interparticle repulsion or attractiveness and activator nature, opposed to the filler effect and dissolution of silica fume. In SS-activated systems, the repulsion between the silanol groups on the silica fume surface and silicate species adsorbed on the surface of precursors particles contributed to the particle separations, thereby enhancing rheological behaviors. In SH-activated system, the attractiveness between divalent metal cations and silanol groups on the surfaces of precursor and silica fume particles was increased and the particle space was restrained. This study would provide new insights into the role of silica fume in the particle interaction of fresh ultra-high performance geopolymer concrete.

Effect of salt and kansui on rheology, water mobility and physicochemical properties of long-chain inulin non-fermented dough and its noodles quality

Salt and kansui are usually added to flour to enhance the quality of flour products. However, the technical roles in long-chain inulin (FXL) dough formation are not well understood. The physicochemical properties and texture changes of FXL dough and noodles after adding salt and kansui were studied. The data revealed that the salt and kansui increased the G′, and G″, disulfide bond content, and the β-sheet content of the FXL dough. SEM results showed that low salt and kansui contents had different effects on the gluten network, especially 1% kansui, which had the best effect on the gluten network structure. Samples supplemented with 1.5% kansui significantly increased hardness and cooking loss (p < 0.05), with values of 84.53 N and 5.48%, respectively. Salt and kansui increased the crystallinity of starch measured by XRD. Therefore, adding salt and kansui may be a feasible approach to alleviate fibre enriched flour products.

Enhancement of water collection efficiency by optimizing hole size and ratio of hydrophilic-superhydrophobic area on hybrid surfaces

The scarcity of freshwater resources has had a significant impact on human life and wildlife survival. Fog harvesting has emerged as one of the most effective solutions to alleviate water scarcity in arid areas. At present, researchers have focused on optimizing hybrid surface designs to capture fog from the air and convert it into water droplets. Here, we prepared a hybrid surface for fog harvesting by a combination of chemical etching and surface modification with mechanical drilling. By adjusting the hole size and the ratio of hydrophilic-superhydrophobic area of the hybrid surfaces, the water collection efficiency was improved. The results indicated that the hole size affected the critical size of sliding water droplets, and the ratio of hydrophilic-superhydrophobic area affected the water droplet sliding speed and water collection frequency, thereby affecting the water collection efficiency per unit time. Therefore, by matching a specific hole size and ratio of hydrophilic-superhydrophobic area, the water collection volume and mobility of water droplets on the hybrid surfaces reached a dynamic equilibrium, achieving the optimal water collection efficiency. When the hole size was 1.0 mm, and the ratio of hydrophilic-superhydrophobic area was 1:4, the highest water collection rate was 805 mg/cm2/h, and the water collection efficiency was 17.5 %. By optimizing the hole size and the ratio of hydrophilic-superhydrophobic area, the water collection efficiency of the hybrid surface was maximized. This lays a solid foundation for promoting the practical applications of hybrid surfaces for fog harvesting.

Storage stability of a fluidized-bed agglomerated spray-dried strawberry powder mixture.

Background: Strawberry is a fruit with a high antioxidant capacity due to its richness in phenolic compounds that suffer a rapid post-harvest deterioration. Spray drying is an alternative to reduce losses; however, these powders present problems of instantanisation, making it necessary to implement agglomeration processes. During storage, powdered food products can undergo a series of changes in their amorphous state from a product initially in a vitreous state to a gummy state, where all properties are substantially modified due to the increased mobility of water in the matrix. Methods: The research objective was to evaluate the storage stability (6 months) of a fluidized bed agglomerated strawberry powder mixture at three temperatures (15, 25 and 25°C), a controlled environment at 65% relative moisture, and PET foil laminated film bags as packaging. Moisture, water activity, bulk and compacted density, Carr and Hausner indices, solubility, hygroscopicity, wettability, angle of repose, antioxidant capacities, total phenols, anthocyanins, vitamin C, color (CIE-Lab) and particle size were monitored. Results: ANOVA showed statistically significant differences (p<0.05) for all dependent variables concerning storage time; storage temperature had no significant effect on S, ABTS, DPPH and Hu. The time-temperature interaction during storage had no significant effect (p>0.05) on S, ABTS, DPPH, Hu and L. The agglomerate showed moisture and aw values that confer excellent stability against deterioration reactions; it retained good fluidity, low cohesiveness, and retentions above 50% for antioxidant capacity, 76% for total phenols, 39% for anthocyanins, and 40% for vitamin C; particle size was retained during the evaluation. The color was only affected in the 35°C treatment from the fifth month onwards. Conclusions: The study will serve as a tool for the determination of the shelf life of the chipboard once the critical values of the attributes selected as predictors of shelf life are defined.

Changes in water status and microstructure reveal the mechanisms by which tempering affects drying characteristics and quality attributes of medicinal chrysanthemums

To elucidate the mechanism behind the heterogeneity in the water distribution during the drying process of medicinal chrysanthemum (Imperial chrysanthemum), and thereby optimize the drying process, this study introduced an innovative approach by incorporating tempering into the drying process and evaluated the effects of hot air drying (HAD), infrared-assisted hot air drying (IR-HAD), and tempering-incorporated IR-HAD (TD+IR-HAD) on the water status, microstructure, and phytochemicals of dried chrysanthemums. Results showed a significant difference in the rate of dehydration between the central and marginal parts of chrysanthemums. The highest difference in moisture content value (1.34 g water/g dry matter) was observed between these two parts for samples subjected to 2.5 h of IR-HAD drying. Consequently, the sample subjected to 2.5 h of IR-HAD drying was selected for tempering. After the optimal tempering treatment (12 h), the samples were subjected to an additional 0.5 h of IR-HAD drying. This incorporated drying method (TD+IR-HAD) effectively reduced the drying time and energy consumption. Transverse relaxation curves and microstructural observations further confirmed that these reductions were related to the enhancement of water mobility and the formation of microchannels during tempering. As a result, chrysanthemums dried using TD+IR-HAD showed increased contents of chlorogenic acid, luteolin, total phenolic, total flavonoid, antioxidant capacity, and the number of volatile compounds compared to HAD and IR-HAD. Overall, these results highlight the potential of TD+IR-HAD as a promising drying technique for enhancing the value and applications of medicinal chrysanthemums in industrial settings.

A facile strategy for fabricating structural rice-pea binary protein-based gel: Characterization and formation mechanism

The effects of different ratios of pea protein (PP) on the gel characteristics of rice protein (RP) and the formation mechanism of RP-PP binary mixed protein were investigated. The formation of the basic viscoelastic network by PP may aid in the gelatinization of RP. Results showed that the RP/PP (1:0.5) mixed protein had the highest gel strength and hardness (P < 0.05), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) findings revealed that PP incorporation of the protein gel established a homogeneous and denser gel network structure. Furthermore, as the proportion of PP increased, the relaxation time of T2b, T21, T22 and surface hydrophobicity decreased, indicating that the hydrophobic interactions of binary proteins restricted water mobility. Results revealed that different behaviors of gels may be attributed to the secondary structure content of proteins. The formation mechanism of binary mixed protein gel was the interpenetration of independently-formed protein network by RP and PP, respectively. It was due to the hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonding between RP and PP enhancing the interactions and gel strength of mixed protein. In summary, results confirmed that PP could be used as a potential ingredient for improving the characteristics of RP/PP binary mixed protein gels.

Air-breathing fuel cell with a columnar cathodic plate for the passive removal of water

Due to their high power density and reduced system requirements, passive proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are most appropriate for small and portable applications. These cells use static hydrogen and ambient air which poses important mass transport limitations of liquid water in the porous electrodes. In this work, a new cathodic plate is studied to optimize water transport and its removal from a passive PEMFC. The plate has an array of columns to favour the mobility and elimination of water drops over the cathode surface by the combining effects of gravity, capillarity, and evaporation. The performance of the new columnar plate is assessed by comparing with a perforated planar plate, and with a conventional PEMFC with flow-field plates. It is found that the columnar plate doubles the mass transport limiting current and peak power density of the planar plate. The analysis of the polarization curves and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy show that the columnar plate decreases water saturation in the cathodic gas diffusion layer (GDL) which improves the transport of gases. It is also found that the columnar plate decreases the dependence of cell performance on orientation which is advantageous for the operability in different applications. The peak power density of the passive air-breathing cell with columnar plate is 15% below that of a conventional cell with flow field plates, which allows to anticipate higher specific power density of the whole system in portable applications.

Molecular Dynamics Simulation of the Influence of Temperature and Salt on the Dynamic Hydration Layer in a Model Polyzwitterionic Polymer PAEDAPS.

We investigate the hydration of poly(3-[2-(acrylamido) ethyldimethylammonio] propanesulfonate) over a range of temperatures in pure water and with the inclusion of 0.1 mol/L NaCl using atomistic molecular dynamics simulation. Drawing on concepts drawn from the field of glass-forming liquids, we use the Debye-Waller parameter (<u2>) for describing the water mobility gradient around the polybetaine backbone extending to an overall distance ≈18 Å. The water mobility in this layer is defined through the mean-square water molecule displacement at a time on the order of water's β-relaxation time. The brushlike topology of polybetaines leads to two regions in the dynamic hydration layer. The inner region of ≈10.5 Å is explored by pendant group conformational motions, and the outer region of ≈7.5 Å represents an extended layer of reduced water mobility relative to bulk water. The dynamic hydration layer extends far beyond the static hydration layer, adjacent to the polymer.

Effects of Interfacial Molecular Structures on Pressure-Driven Brine Flow in Silica Mesopores.

In this work, we conduct molecular dynamics simulations to investigate pressure-driven brine flow in silica mesopores under typical reservoir conditions (323 K and 20 MPa). While surface counterions accumulate strongly in the vicinity of fully deprotonated silica surfaces, water forms multilayer structures due to hydrogen bonding, counterion hydration, and excluded-volume effect. Brine flow behaviors exhibit adsorption, transition, and bulk-like regions in fully deprotonated silica mesopores, while the transition region is negligible in fully protonated ones. In the adsorption region, strong surface hydrogen bonding and a high degree of counterion hydration collectively hinder water mobility. Even without surface hydrogen bonding, persistent ion hydration impedes water flow, leading to the transition region in fully deprotonated silica mesopores and higher viscosity of brine (with 10 wt % NaCl) in the bulk region. This work elucidates the collective effects of surface chemistry and interfacial water structures on brine flow behaviors in silica mesopores from molecular perspectives.

Effect of sodium carbonate on the properties of seventy percent of Tartary buckwheat composite flour-based doughs and noodles and the underlying mechanism.

The impact of Na2 CO3 on the properties of doughs and noodles containing 70% Tartary buckwheat flour was investigated. Low-field 1 H nuclear magnetic resonance showed the mobility of water in the doughs significantly declined with the addition content of alkali from 0% to 0.9%. Na2 CO3 promoted the transformation from free sulfhydryl groups to disulfide bonds in doughs because the sulfhydryl groups in cysteine preferred to form thiolate anion and then oxidate under alkaline conditions. As for non-covalent chemical interactions, a significant increase of hydrogen bonds and a decrease of hydrophobic interactions were observed after Na2 CO3 addition. Quantitative analysis of microstructure showed that more uniform and denser gluten networks with higher branching rate and shorter average protein length and width formed in the doughs with 0.3%-0.6% of Na2 CO3 . The aggregated glutenin macropolymer and enhanced protein structure led to significantly stronger tensile of Tartary buckwheat dough sheets, which could meet the demand of continuous processing in the factory. Dough with alkali had higher swelling power and pasting viscosities, contributing to higher water absorption, and improved textural attributes of cooked noodles. This study demonstrated the possibility of adding Na2 CO3 at a moderate level for promoting the sheeting, cooking, and eating properties of high Tartary buckwheat flour composite noodles.

Anisotropy in particle orientation controls water diffusion in clay materials

Clay minerals are used in a wide number of natural or artificial materials for municipal or nuclear waste management in which water diffusion is the principal transfer process. However, a quantitative assessment of the impact of the preferred orientation of lamellar clay particles on water diffusion is still lacking. Using 3D Brownian dynamics simulation on representative virtual clay porous media, a systematic study of water diffusion for single-porosity (illite or kaolinite) and dual-porosity (vermiculite) systems was conducted. The simulated water diffusion coefficients were validated through comparison with experiments and were used to build an Archie model including the degree of anisotropy in particle orientation. The results showed that water diffusion can be predicted based on a correct description of the solid phase organization and that clay particle orientation, such as interparticle porosity, is a primary parameter governing water mobility. Moreover, the anisotropy of water diffusion can be linked to the degree of particle preferred orientation, irrespective of the porosity value. The modified version of the Archie model for water diffusion in clay systems proposed here has many potential applications where decoupling of porosity and preferred orientation is needed, including better prediction of water transfers or improved designs of clay liners with sustainable use of natural mineral resources.

Impact of clod (aggregate) size on evaporation rate and soil moisture profile during the drying process

AbstractLarge clods (centimetres in size) can be formed by tillage in clayey paddy fields where upland crops are planted. These clods cause early water depletion near the soil surface, which decreases crop germination and emergence rates. Because of the difficulty in reducing clod size, desiccation damage to seeds can be avoided by adjusting the seeding depth based on the clod size‐dependent soil moisture profile. This study aimed to clarify the effect of clod size on (1) the evaporation rate (E) and soil moisture profile and (2) the mobility of soil water during the drying process. Evaporation experiments were conducted in an air‐conditioned greenhouse with natural light using cylindrical columns filled with artificially made clods 3 (L columns) and 1 cm (S columns) in diameter. We measured E, potential evaporation rate (PE), and total soil moisture content (wtot) throughout the experiment and the soil moisture profiles at the end of the experiment. The water diffusivity (Dw) and apparent vapour diffusion coefficient (dvap) were calculated as the mobility of soil water and water vapour, respectively. We found that wtot was lower in the L column than in the S column, although not at the onset of the experiment. At the end of the experiment, the soil moisture content was lower in the L column than in the S column throughout the soil layer. In contrast, E/PE was higher in the L column than in the S column throughout the experiment and even at the same wtot. Regarding mobility, Dw was slightly greater in the L column than in the S column in the soil moisture content range, where vapour movement could be greater than liquid water movement. In addition, the ratio of dvap to the diffusion coefficient of water vapour in soil was higher than unity in both columns and was 2.4–3.2 times higher in the L column than in the S column. In summary, larger clods caused a higher evaporation rate and lower soil moisture content, owing to the increased enhancement of water vapour movement probably induced by wind.

Effect of gamma irradiation treatment on microstructure, water mobility, flavor, sensory and quality properties of smoked chicken breast.

Effect of gamma irradiation on quality, flavor and sensory properties of smoked chicken breasts were investigated. Results indicated irradiation doses >3kGy were effective for sterilization, while also produced a significant effect on overall quality of smoked chicken breast. Irradiation treatment could inhibit protein oxidation and accelerate lipid oxidation of smoked chicken breasts. High irradiation doses could increase the instability of free and bound water, as well as increase muscle fiber gap and juice loss significantly. Irradiation treatment also promoted free fatty acids and taste-presenting nucleotides degradation, effectively increased fresh-tasting amino acids contents and decreased bitter and sweet-tasting amino acids contents. The types and relative contents of volatiles, especially aldehydes, alcohols, aromatic hydrocarbons, and phenolic compounds, also changed after irradiation, while tartaric, pyruvic, and malic acids decreased. Results obtained can provide valuable reference data for improving the quality and flavor of smoked chicken breasts using gamma irradiation technology.

Underlying mechanisms and molecular interactions of isochoric freezing on enhancing the freshness of chicken breast meat

This study investigated the underlying mechanisms involved in moisture migration under three different isochoric treatment conditions, namely, direct immersion freezing (DIF), vacuum pack freezing (VPF), vacuum immersion pack freezing (VIPF), and their molecular interactions on the overall freshness of chicken breast meat using a 2.5 g/dL sodium chloride solution at −4 °C. Occurring mass transfer processes of moisture, including diffusion and infusion, led to changes in water distribution and mobility, which significantly (P < 0.05) affected various characteristics, such as colour, water holding capacity, pH, cooking loss, total volatile basic nitrogen, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, solubility, and microstructural integrity of the DIF samples. Meanwhile, VIPF samples were slightly affected except for pH and WHC, while VPF samples did not significantly differ from fresh samples (P > 0.05). The study suggested that the isochoric protocol could be varied depending on the sample nature and desired outcomes, and could provide some theoretical and experimental basis for designing isochoric freezing protocols.

Investigation on epidermal structure and water migration of postharvest passion fruit during storage.

Passion fruit is a tropical fruit that has plenty of fruit fragrance. During storage, passion fruit quickly loses water, resulting in its poor quality. Researching the mechanism of water loss contributes to prolonging the storage time. In this study, passion fruit was stored at 7 or 25°C to analyze the relationship between epidermal structure and water migration. The epidermal wax and structure of passion fruit began to show signs of destruction from the middle stage (day 8) during storage. The mobility of free water was decreased at 7°C and increased at 25°C in passion fruit from the middle stage of storage (day 8). The migration rate of free water in passion fruit stored at 7°C was lower than that at 25°C. The mobility of immobile water was weaker in the late storage period but that of bound water changed barely. These results showed that the migration of free, immobile, and bound water had a connection with the epidermal structure. Incomplete epidermal structure promoted water loss in passion fruit, with the most pronounced loss of free water. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Maintaining the epidermal structure of passion fruit well can decrease the water loss ratio. Passion fruit stored at low temperatures could better sustain the integrity of epidermal wax and structure; it was able to change the water migration rate in the epidermis of passion fruit, which was conducive to maintaining the water content.

Effect of different sweeteners on the thermal, rheological, and water mobility properties of soft wheat flour and their application to cookies as an alternative to sugar

The effects of different sweeteners on the physicochemical properties of soft wheat flour were investigated mainly in terms of thermal, rheological, and water mobility features, and their feasibilities as an alternative to sugar were evaluated in the cookie system. Kestose significantly reduced the solvent retention capacity of wheat flour, followed by sucrose, fructose, and allulose. Thermal analysis showed that the sucrose and kestose distinctly led to an increase in the gelatinization temperature of wheat flour, which was explained by lower T2 relaxation times. In addition, the pasting viscosities and thermo-mechanical properties of wheat flour containing kestose became lower compared to allulose, and these differences were morphologically confirmed by the real-time microscopic measurements during heating. Furthermore, when the sweeteners were incorporated into the cookie formulations, kestose played a positive role as a sugar replacer in the cookie system by presenting a comparable spread factor, texture, and color to cookies with sucrose.