Misleading Character Research Articles

An Underestimated Alternative: America and the Limits of “Critical Theory”

The main goal of this paper is to examine the intellectual and biographical reasons why the theorists of the Frankfurt school did not embrace pragmatism. This goal is pursued in four areas: (1) the epistemological area of the debate about subjective and objective “reason”—here the misleading character of Horkheimer's and Mar-cuse's writings on pragmatism is demonstrated; (2) the area of political theory—here the tension between the American democratic tradition and a quasi-Marxist functionalism is exposed; (3) the area of social psychology—here the inability of the Frankfurt school to incorporate symbolic interactionism becomes evident; (4) the elitist relationship to American mass culture. The paper ends with brief remarks on Habermas' ambivalent position between pragmatism and “Critical Theory” and with a perspective of transcending this ambivalence.

On The Nonintuitive Nature Of The Correlation Coefficient: Subjective Estimation Of Three-Variable Relations.

The misleading character of the correlation coefficient was investigated in two studies of intuitive statistical behaviour: subjective estimation of partial correlation and subjective estimation of the minimum possible correlation between two variables given their equal correlation with a third. Fourteen Psychology Department faculty and graduate students provided estimates of partial correlations, r[SUBxy.z'] for varying positive values of rxy and rxy = ryz. Mean estimated rxy.z values were uniformly lower than theoretical (actual) values. Twenty-four statistics students and sixteen Statistics Department faculty and graduate students furnished estimates of minimum possible correlations, min rxy' for varying positive values of rxz = ryz. For both samples mean estimated min rxy was higher than the theoretical (actual) min rxy. Thus, in both studies, subjective overestimated the degree of influence on the correlation between two variables, X and Y, of a third, constraining variable, Z. The Hazards of intuitive statistical inference in the interpretation of correlational data are are discussed.

Origin of the Temperature Dependence of the Ultrasonic “Rotational Relaxation” Time

An investigation of the origin of the anomalous temperature dependence of the rotational equilibration time is reported. Systems of H2, D2, and N2 have been studied. In each case the rotational system has been represented as a multilevel ensemble. The transition constants kij for transitions j → i are obtained from a simple, line-of-centers collision model and contain one common adjustable parameter which is fixed by fitting room-temperature ultrasonic velocity dispersion data to the model. Equilibration rates are obtained via numerical solution of the master equation. Velocity dispersion curves are then calculated under the assumptions of gaseous ideality and rotational Boltzmann equilibrium at all times. The individual transition constants kij obtained in the formalism exhibit both positive and negative temperature coefficients depending upon the i–j spacing. Positive coefficients are associated with large rotational spacing while negative values result from small spacings. The calculated ultrasonic velocity dispersion curves correspond to experiment with near quantitative accuracy over a 700°K temperature range. The ultrasonic frequency at which dispersion occurs decreases with increasing temperature, and this effect does not appear to be due to the negative temperature coefficient exhibited by the transition constants for the low-J states. Likewise, the effect is not directly associated with a decrease in collision rate at unit pressure as T increases. In general, it is concluded that the apparent negative temperature coefficient associated with the over-all ultrasonic equilibration process is due to the multilevel character of the system and to the fact that the adjacent level spacing increases linearly with rotational quantum number. It is shown that the equilibration process can not be adequately described by a simple relaxation expression with a single time constant, and the misleading character of the term “rotational relaxation time” is pointed out.

Experiences in the management of subacute bacterial endocarditis treated with penicillin

Experiences are related in the management of thirty-five patients with subacute bacterial endocarditis treated solely with penicillin on the wards of the Johns Hopkins Hospital. Attention is called to the difficulty of establishing a clinical diagnosis at an early stage of the disease due to the nonspecific or misleading character of the presenting symptoms, the frequent absence of classical physical findings and the prevalence of the infection in individuals with only a minimal degree of cardiac disease. The importance of early diagnosis and institution of treatment is emphasized, as continuation of infection may result in irreparable damage to the heart or kidneys or allow the occurrence of fatal emboli, although in several instances a successful therapeutic result was achieved despite a long lapse of time from the onset of disease until commencement of therapy. It is suggested that any patient with a cardiac murmur and a persistent fever should be suspected of having bacterial endocarditis until careful bacteriologic studies and clinical observations have proved otherwise. The necessity of retaining, both aerobically and anaerobically, all blood cultures for a period of not less than three weeks before they are considered sterile is emphasized as is the importance of searching for unusual organisms such as the genus Bacteroides. The course of these patients during treatment is described and the complications encountered are analyzed relative to adequacy or inadequacy of treatment received. The conclusion is reached that the two major causes of death were the underlying cardiac disease and the persistence of bacterial endocarditis. Hence, the major therapeutic concern is that adequate penicillin be given for an adequate period of time and prior to the development of unalterable cardiac abnormalities. The fact that evidence of active bacterial endocarditis was found upon autopsy examination of three patients who died while receiving treatment commonly regarded as adequate has led to critical appraisal of present criteria of therapeutic adequacy. A plan of therapeutic management is described which is thought to assure adequate therapy for the maximum number of patients. In it the penicillin dosage is based primarily upon clinical evidence of satisfactory response. Such factors as the penicillin sensitivity of bacteria, penicillin blood levels and sterilization of blood cultures have been found to have only limited value. The necessity of continuing treatment for an adequate period of time is discussed and the recommendation is made that 100,000 units of penicillin given intramuscularly every two hours for eight weeks be considered the basic and minimal treatment schedule. The pros and cons of initiating treatment before a bacteriologic diagnosis is completed are stated with the conclusion that a reasonable period of delay is justified provided the condition of the patient does not contraindicate such treatment. It is advised that blood cultures be obtained before antibiotic therapy is given to any patient with valvular or congenital heart disease who has a localized bacterial infection, lest a latent bacterial endocarditis be obscured. The value of prolonged convalescence to allow maximal healing of damaged valves is indicated. Consideration is given to the need for adequate prophylaxis against the development of subacute bacterial endocarditis not only during dental extractions but during any type of procedure which might result in transient bacteremia. The elimination of foci of infection which might serve as a reservoir of infection or reinfection is recommended. In conclusion, the immediate results of treatment are discussed and the course of surviving patients over a three to thirty-six months' period is described. An evaluation is attempted of the influence upon the ultimate outcome of certain factors, including the presence of cardiac failure before, during and after the onset of bacterial endocarditis. The final determinants of failure or success in the treatment of subacute bacterial endocarditis with penicillin appear to be the degree of cardiac damage resulting either from the bacterial infection or an underlying disease process, the severity of the embolic occurrences and the resistance of the infecting organisms.

I.—The Genus Primula: Section Farinosae

The section Farinosae was first denned by Pax (1) in 1889 with citation of P. farinosa and P. sibirica as representative species. He published at the same time his section Auriculatae. The only distinction given of apparent moment between the two sections is the shape and size of the capsule. In Auriculatae it is globose and included in the calyx, while in Farinosae it is cylindric and more or less exserted. This diagnostic character was found to be unsatisfactory, with the result that in 1905 Pax (2) in his Monograph combined the two sections under Farinosae. There was still an undercurrent of opinion that a division was justified, and at the Third Primula Conference in 1913 Bayley Balfour (3) reverted to the previous arrangement without, however, any stated reasons. At the Fourth Primula Conference held in 1928 the sections of the genus were reviewed by Smith and Forrest (4), who again subordinated Auriculatae to Farinosae. In 1932 appeared Bruun's Cytological Studies in Primula (5), with a detailed analysis of the species then available in cultivation. Here valid evidence was given that certain species assessed in the past as within Auriculatae did differ cytologically from the general run of species included without question in the Farinosae. But the cytological evidence taken alone tends to associate these Auriculatae with other species quite dissimilar from the broad morphological point of view. The problem is referred to again by Wright Smith (6) in his Hooker Lecture, where it is admitted that the cytological data do support the view that there is a degree of fundamental difference between the two sections. But the difficulty still remains of finding satisfactory macroscopic distinctions. The present authors have come to the conclusion that it is better to keep both under the general heading Farinosae rather than to separate them by slender and often misleading characters supported as these may be by the cytology. In any case much remains to be done on the cytological side, as the majority of the species are yet to be analysed, and for general purposes the incorporation of the cytological data in an analytical key would not be satisfactory.

The British Political Scene Since the General Election

A general election has been aptly compared to an instantaneous photograph of a galloping horse. It is a static representation of a public opinion that is by its very essence perpetually changing, and a newly elected House of Commons has not yet met before it is in a sense out of date and no longer fully representative. Even if a general election photograph had permanent significance, it would be open to the criticism of inaccuracy at the time of taking. Readers of this Review are aware of the misleading character of the British electoral machine—of the fact that whenever more than two candidates contest a constituency, the one elected may very well represent but a fraction over a third of the electorate; so that election statistics show a serious discrepancy between the distribution of votes and the allocation of seats.On the eve of dissolution, the House of Commons comprised 400 Conservative, 162 Socialist, and 46 Liberal members, with seven Independents. The new House comprises 289 Socialists, 260 Conservatives, 59 Liberals, and seven Independents. This distribution of seats, we have said, does not accurately correspond to that of votes cast, since the Socialists polled 8,370,005 votes, the Conservatives 8,641,170, and the Liberals 5,295,308. The usual explanation of the discrepancy is that the Labor party had all the luck of the three-cornered contests in which a minority candidate was returned. This, however, happens to be false; that luck went to the Conservatives: of 313 successful “minority” candidates, 153 are Conservatives, 122 Socialists, and 38 Liberals; while of 291 seats held by a clear majority, Socialists have 166, Conservatives 105, and Liberals 20.

"HERMAN RUBIN AND CITROPHAN"

To the Editor: —Some time ago my attention was called to the fact that a circular letter describing the Citrophan treatment was signed by Dr. H. H. Rubin, who described himself as Physician to Mount Sinai Hospital. Dr. Rubin was not a physician to Mount Sinai Hospital but had merely been a subordinate clinical assistant in one of the branches of the outpatient service for a short period. As long ago as November, 1923, I remonstrated with him vigorously regarding the misleading character of his circular, and obtained his promise that the name of Mount Sinai Hospital would not thereafter be used in connection with Citrophan.